
Class T*^ ^■lo 
Book _5_2> 



The Scientific Steel Worker 

A Practical Manual for Steel 
Workers and Blacksmiths. 
The Art of Working Steel 
Thoroughly Explained. 
Also Steel Working 
Receipts and Mechan- 
ical Tables for Mak- 
ing Rings of all 
Sizes o f Iron, 
Steel a i-. d 
Angle Iron. 



BY 



OZRO A. WESTOVER 



Copyrighted December, 1903 

by 

OZRO A. WESTOVER 



.t CONGRESS 
Tw* Cepies Received 

FEB 19 1904 

CLASS C^ XXc. No, 

' 'copy'V 



THE EDWARDS COMPANY, PRINTERS- 



MH 



Index. 

PAGE 

Judging Steel 9 

Forging Steel 15 

Forging Self-Hardening Steel 33 

Forging and Tempering Steel Springs 35 

Welding Steel 3g 

Annealing Steel 45 

Hardening and Tempering Steel 52 

Case Hardening 71 

Thermite Welding 7g 

Miscellaneous Steel Working Methods 79 

Brazing gg 

Tables of Diameter and Circumference of Circles. 86 

Tables for Working Angle Iron 103 

Tables of Weights of Round, Square and Octa- 
gon Steel per foot 105 

Tables of Weights of Flat Steel per foot 107 

Conclusion H2 



Preface. 

In presenting this little book to the public the ob- 
ject is to give my readers practical instructions in 
the art of working steel according to scientific prin- 
ciples, and to do so in plain language and in the 
fewest possible words. I will not attempt to make a 
flowery display of literary talent, nor to amuse the 
readers with anything funny. The working of steel' 
in all its many branches is a trade, or rather a profes- 
sion, that in the past has not received much atten- 
tion. The time is now at hand when steel workers 
must study the scientific principles of working steel 1 
or they will not be up to date. To be a good steel 
worker requires expert judgment and skill as well as 
patience. I learned my trade under a first-class steel 
worker in a blacksmith and machine shop, and have 
always made a specialty of steel work ; have im- 
proved every opportunity to learn more about steel ;- 
have worked in thirty-six different shops and thus- 
have had an extensive experience in steel working 
of all kinds, and have always been successful. In 
this work I recommend only what I know to be of 
value to steel workers. I am a member of Youngs- 
town Union No. 83, I. B. of B. To my brothers and 
all those who wish to improve themselves as steeL 
workers I dedicate his book. 



The Scientific Steel Worker. 



Judging Steel. 

All steel workers should, be able to judge steel as 
to quality and the amount of carbon it contains. It 
is just as essential that a steel worker should be a 
judge of steel as it is that a wood worker should be a 
judge of wood. 

One grade of steel is not fit for all purposes any 
more than one kind of wood is suitable for all pur- 
poses. The more carbon steel contains the harder it 
is. Ordinary tool steel contains from fifty to one 
hundred and fifty points of carbon. One point is 
equal to one hundredth of one per cent ; one hundred 
points is equal to one per cent. 

High carbon steel will harden at a lower heat than 
low carbon steel; is harder to forge and is more diffi- 
cult to weld. High carbon steel will not stand as 
much heat as low carbon steel. When working very 
high carbon steel be careful not to overheat it. 
High carbon steel will give far the best results for 
machine tools, such as lathe, planer and shaper tools; 
also drills, milling cutters, scribers, etc. Low car- 
bon steel will give the best results for all battering 
tools such as hammers, sledges, cold chisels, swages, 
flatters, fullers, etc., and all tools which must resist 
shocks or blows. 



10 THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 

If tools are made of good steel of the proper car- 
bon content for the purpose, they will give far better 
results than they would if made of steel which is too 
high or too low in carbon. It is a great benefit to a 
steel worker to be able to determine the carbon con- 
tent of steel. 

LIST OF CARBON TEMPERS FOR SPECIFIC USES. 

Steel of from 50 to 60 points, hot work and batter- 
ing tools. 

Steel of from 60 to 70 points, battering tools and 
tools with a blunt point 

Steel of from 70 to 80 points, cold chisels, flatters,, 
hammers, sledges, set hammers and shear knives. 

Steel of from 80 to 90 points, stone tools, reamers > 
cold chisels and shear knives. 

Steel of from 90 to 100 points, drills, taps, dies, 
reamers, wood working tools and cutlery of all kinds. 

Steel of from 100 to 110 points, drills, taps, dies> 
machine tools, surgical instruments, etc. 

Steel of from 110 to 150 points, machine tools, en- 
graving tools, scribers, scrapers, very small drills and 
similar purposes. 

To correctly judge steel as to its carbon content 
requires practice and close observation. 

To begin with take a piece of octagon cold chisel 
steel, cut it on three sides and break it in two ; do 
not cut it all around, for if you do you cannot see 
how the fracture looks at the edges, which is an im- 
portant point when judging steel. 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. H 

The carbon content of ordinary cold chisel steel is 
about eighty points. Examine the fracture carefully 
with a good pocket magnifying glass and you will 
notice how the grain of the steel looks. You will 
also notice all around the outside there is a thin de- 
carbonized skin about one-hundredth of an inch thick - 
the thicker this skin is the lower the carbon content; 
this is for steel as it comes from the mill " unan- 
nealed." 

Examine the fracture carefully all over and re- 
member how it looks. The fracture will be rough or 
uneven; the small points which appear all over the 
fractured surface will be rounding, providing it is 
good steel. Inferior steel will show sharp points on 
a fractured surface, and several minute sparkling 
particles can be seen with the naked eye. Low car- 
bon steel when broken looks coarse-grained and 
rough on the surface; the lower the carbon content 
the rougher the fractured surface will be. High car- 
bon steel will break easier than low carbon steel- the 
fracture will be nearly smooth and the grain be' fine 
and present a compact appearance; the higher the 
carbon content the smoother the fracture. 

The fracture alone is not an altogether accurate 
index to the carbon content of steel, as the appear- 
ance of the fractured surface can be greatly modified 
by the manner of heating and hammering and by 
the temperature at which the bar is finished. A bar 
of steel can be worked in such a manner that several 



12 THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 

pieces can be broken from it, each exhibiting a dif- 
ferent fracture. 

The decarbonized skin, however, will be the same 
no matter how the steel was hammered or rolled, and 
regardless of the heat the bar was finished at, but 
will be very much thicker after the steel is annealed ; 
the grain will also be much coarser after annealing. 

After you examine the fracture of eighty carbon 
steel get a piece of steel which is known to contain 
one hundred points and carefully examine it. Then 
get another piece that is known to contain one hun- 
dred and twenty points. You will notice a great dif- 
ference in the fracture and in the thickness of the 
decarbonized skin. 

Another guide for estimating the carbon content 
is in forging. Notice the scales which fall from low 
carbon steel. They will be thick and rough ; the 
lower the carbon the thicker and rougher the scales 
will be, and vice versa. The scales from high car- 
bon steel will be thin and smooth. The higher the 
carbon the thinner and smoother the scale. 

Another guide for estimating the carbon content 
is the way tools look after being used several days. 

A cold chisel or any tool which receives blows, if 
made of steel containing from seventy to eighty 
points carbon, the head of the tool will batter up 
and spread out and finally curl over and turn back 
against the tool without breaking. 

If such tools are made of steel containing from 
ninety to one hundred points carbon, the heads will 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 13 

not batter easily and will chip off all around as soon 
as the head commences to spread. If the tool is a 
natter, or any such which receives heavy blows it 
will split off in large pieces and sometimes will split 
in the center clear to the eye. 

The higher the carbon the less the heads will 
spread and the more they will chip off. If battering 
tools are made of steel containing much less than 
seventy points carbon, the heads will batter up very 
easily and spread out entirely too much unless the 
head of the tool has been hardened. Watch all these 
different points carefully and examine every fracture 
you see. 

Steel which contains forty points of carbon or 
less will not harden in a satisfactory manner and will 
not hold an edge. 

If you follow these directions you will be able to 
determine the carbon content of steel with sufficient 
accuracy for all practical purposes. 

In a shop where I was working a few years ago 
they had some machinery steel which contained a 
large amount of carbon. We made some small 
forgings of it. I noticed it worked rather hard and 
was difficult to weld. The machinists complained 
about the forgings being so hard that they could not 
machine them. The Superintendent wanted to know 
what caused those forgings to be so hard. I told 
him it was high carbon steel and that the only way 
to soften it was to anneal it after forging. The Su- 
perintendent said he knew it was not high carbon 



14 THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL, WORKER. 

steel. I told him that I positively knew it was. So 
to settle the matter he sent some of the steel to a 
chemist for analysis and told me "that a chemist 
was the only man that could tell any thing about the 
carbon content of steel." I told him "that the 
steel contained between sixty and sixty-five points of 
carbon," and asked him to let me know how much 
carbon the chemist found it to contain. He said, 
"All right; but you would not know anything about 
it if I do tell you." The chemist reported the steel 
to contain sixty-three points of carbon. The Super- 
intendent showed me the report and asked me how 
I could tell how much carbon steel contains. 

I told him, " You would not know anything 
about if I did tell you. A chemist is the only man 
that can tell anything about the carbon content of 
steel." He did not ask me any more questions just 
then. 

A few days later he brought me a piece of steel 
and asked me how much carbon it contained. I ex- 
amined it by all the before-mentioned methods of 
judging steel, and told him it contained about one 
hundred points of carbon. He had it analyzed and 
found it contained ninety-eight points of carbon. 
He was then thoroughly convinced that I knew some- 
thing about steel, and that a chemist is not the only 
man that can determine the carbon content of steel. 

I do not claim to be as accurate in all cases as I 
was in the above mentioned tests, but will say I can 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 15 

determine the carbon content of steel sufficiently ac- 
curate for all practical purposes. 

Forging Tool Steel. 

Forging tool steel is a subject which has received 
less attention than annealing or hardening. Nearly 
every smith has had more or less experience in this 
line, but the ones that forge tool steel as it should be 
done are very scarce. Most of them think all that is 
necessary is to forge the article to proper shape and 
size. They pay very little attention to the heat so 
long as the steel does not fly to pieces. It is all right 
in some smiths' estimation but not with the experi- 
enced steel worker. That sort of heats will do for 
iron but is the ruination of tool steel. 

Occasionally we find a smith that forges steel at 
too low a heat which is nearly as bad as overheating. 
Tools that are forged at too low a heat will never 
give satisfaction. Forging at too low a heat will 
cause the steel to be very brittle, and is sure to cause 
internal strains which will cause the tool to be very 
liable to crack or spring in hardening. 

I have seen a great many smiths that overheated 
steel and also hammered it long after all traces of 
red heat had disappeared. Hammering steel at black 
heat should not be done under any circumstances. 

To secure the best results and properly forge tool 
steel, have a good clean fire deep enough to allow a 
good body of fuel under the steel- so that the blast 
will not strike it, and keep the steel slightly covered 



16 THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 

with soft coke or charcoal. Heat slowly and evenly; 
turn the steel over often. The amount of heat which 
steel will stand, without injury, depends upon the na- 
ture of the steel. For a large tool or forging, that 
requires considerable work and several heats. Steel 
of low carbon may be heated to a very light red or 
dark yellow for the first few heats, but should be fin- 
ished at a dark red. Remember that when the red 
disappears it is time to stop hammering. 

When finishing a tool several heavy blows are 
necessary to make the steel compact and fine grained. 
We often see a smith who thinks he is a good steel 
worker who will hammer steel when it is black, and 
even put a set hammer or flatter on it and have the 
helper strike it with a heavy sledge ; or, still worse, 
pound it with a steam hammer. Hammering steel 
when at a black heat will ruin small and thin tools, 
and is a useless waste of time and energy on large 
pieces and will do more harm than good on all sized 
tools. 

We often see a smith heat a cold chisel nearly hot 
enough to weld and hammer it long after all traces of 
red is gone, then heat it about twice as hot as it 
should be, then harden it and draw the temper to a 
nice blue. No doubt he thinks that he dressed that 
chisel just as good as any one could, and when the 
chisel is brought back broken the smith will say: 
"The steel is no good, or the chisel was not ground 
right, or else the man that used the chisel did not 
understand his business." 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. IT 

Good cold chisels, like good steel workers, are- 
scarce. Cold chisels are the most abused tools in 
the world. It requires knowledge and skill to make 
a first-class cold chisel. I have seen hundreds of 
smiths dress chisels, but among them all I found only- 
three who forged, hardened and tempered chisels as 
they should be done to obtain the best results. I 
have seen old tool smiths who had worked tool steel 
for fifty years and were good tool dressers on most 
tools. When they dressed cold chisels they would 
not heat too hot or hammer too cold, and would also- 
give the chisel the proper temper. But that is not all 
that is necessary to make a first-class chisel. 

There is more science in forging steel than there 
is in hardening and tempering. Some steel workers 
may not believe this but I can prove it. If a man is 
a scientific steel worker he can make a good chisel 
every time providing he has good steel to make it of. 
A smith w T ho has not got this knowledge may once in 
a while make a good chisel, but he does not know 
why that chisel is any better than the others ; and 
no doubt if he should make a dozen more from the- 
same bar of steel he could not get another as good as 
that one. I have seen this happen to lots of men 
who were supposed to be good steel workers. Cold 
chisels should be made of a good grade of steel con- 
taining from seventy to eighty points carbon. 

To make a cold chisel, first cut off enough steel to- 
make it the desired length. Heat it to a bright red 
back about three inches, then trim off the corners oik 



18 THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 

two parallel sides so that the end will have a short, 
blunt point; this will keep the edges from lapping 
•over in forging. Draw the chisel on the horn of the 
anvil the first heat. This will draw it much faster 
and will not spread it out sideways as much as draw- 
ing on the face of the anvil. Consequently it will 
not require as much hammering on the edges to get 
it into the proper shape. The less you hammer a 
chisel on the edge the better it will be. When you 
have hammered the chisel on the sides until it is a 
dark red, never turn it up edgeways and strike it; 
but if it must be hammered on the edge put it back 
in the fire and heat it again ; then do all the ham- 
mering on the edge that you are going to do. Then 
hammer it evenly and thoroughly on the sides, but 
do not strike the edges again. When you get the 
chisel nearly to size and shape, medium heavy blows 
are necassary to close the pores and pack the steel. 
This should be done when the steel is a very dark 
red, but when the red disappears stop hammering 
immediate^. Put the chisel in the fire but do not 
turn on any blast. As soon as it is a dark red take 
it out and give it several good blows on each side, 
then heat again and hammer as before. Repeat the 
operation three or four times but remember to keep 
your hammer off the edges. If the chisel gets too 
wide or the edges get crooked you can file or grind it 
to shape. 

If you wish to make a flat chisel out of three- 
quarter inch steel draw it out so that it will be about 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER 19 

one-eighth of an inch thick at the end, and about 
one-fourth of an inch thick three inches from the end. 
A chisel of this size should be about seven-eights or 
three-quarters of an inch wide and a trine thicker in 
the center than it is at the edges. 

When you have the chisel forged let it cool off 
then grind it. When the chisel is ready to harden 
heat it to an even dark red back as far as it has been 
drawn. Plunge it in the bath straight down as far 
as you have it hot enough to harden ; move it up and 
down a little, but not sideways. As soon as the 
-chisel is cooled through take it out and rub one side 
bright (of course we have only enough heat left in 
this chisel to start the temper a little; that is all we 
want) ; now hold it over the fire and draw it evenly 
all over alike to a regular cold chisel blue. 

A chisel made in this way can be worn back three 
inches before it needs dressing and the edge will 
stand far better than the ordinary chisel. One 
chisel made in this way will last longer than three 
dozen chisels made like a blunt wedge and hardened 
about one-fourth of an inch on the end as it is gen- 
erally done. This way of forging steel holds good 
on all flat tools and tools that can be finished on the 
flat sides, such as side tools, flat drills, cut-off tools, 
scrapers, mill picks, stone tools, etc. Always use a 
heavy hammer for finishing a tool, or else use a good 
set hammer or flatter. Remember to finish on the 
flat sides and keep off the edge and finish at a dark 



20 THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 

red and never strike steel after all traces of red have 
gone, and never overheat it. 

The above is the scientific method of forging tool 
steel and is the secret of my success as a steel forger. 
I have made and dressed a great many tools with un- 
rivaled success. 

To show the superiority of my woikmanship: I 
made two cold chisels of seven-eighth octagon steel 
and drove one of them clear through a cold bar of 
one and three-eighth inch square steel, and the other 
through a cold bar of two and one-quarter inch 
square iron. These chisels ^ere only one-eighth of 
an itch thick at the point, and were drawn tapering 
nearly four inches; the entire length is about seven 
and one-half inches; width at point seven-eighths of 
an inch. These chisels were forged according to the 
directions given in this work. I hardened and tem- 
pered these chisels the entire length to keep them 
from bending, with the exception that they are ex- 
actly the same as I always make flat chisels. They 
were driven through the bars of steel and iron with a 
steam hammer in the blacksmith shop of the Youngs- 
town Iron Sheet and Tube Company on the 16th day 
of November, 1903, in the presence of the foreman 
blacksmith, David Howells, and all his blacksmiths 
and helpers. These chisels were never taken out of 
the steel and iron. I still have them. The edges 
were not damaged in the operation. The points pro- 
ject through about three-quarters of an inch. If 
you doubt this, write Mr. Howells. 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 21 

Nearly three years ago I dressed a flat cold chisel 
for George R. Hasbrouck, No. 638 West Main street, 
Ravenna, Ohio, a machinist employed by the John 
F. Buyers Machine Company. He has used that 
chisel almost three years, and during that time it has 
not been in the fire. Over two inches has been worn 
off the cutting end and about the same amount 
pounded off the other end. 

This chisel was drawn out long and thin. Was 
not over one-fourth of an inch thick four inches back 
from the end, and was hardened and tempered back 
about five inches; was seven-eighths of an inch wide, 
nine inches long and less than one-eighth of an inch 
thick at the point, and not over three-sixteenths of 
an inch thick three and one-half inches from the 
point. This chisel is still in use and will last for 
several months more. It has been used on all kinds 
of iron and steel that a man ever cuts with a cold 
chisel. Mr. Hasbrouck is a first-class machinist and 
knows how to grind and use a chisel, which are two 
things that a great many machinists do not know. 
If any of my readers doubt what I say about this 
chisel they will please write to Mr. Hasbrouck and 
see what he has to say about it. 

Nearly every blacksmith and toolsmith imagines 
that it ruins tool steel to upset it, but I know better. 
If the upsetting is properly done it will do no harm. 
To prove this, I have often upset steel for broad 
nosed tools and they always gave satisfaction. If 
you wish to upset steel, heat it to a bright red and 



22 THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 

upset it some larger than the finished size so that the 
steel can be thoroughly packed by hammering it on 
two parallel sides when the steel is at a dark red : 
but after you have commenced to pack the steel do- 
not strike on the edges. If you hammer steel on all 
sides when it is at a dark red it will cause strains 
and leave the steel in a far worse condition than it 
was before it was forged. I do not claim that upset- 
ting steel is any benefit to it, but if properly done it 
will not harm it. 

Several years ago I went to a large shop and got 
a job on the tool fire. The first thing they gave me 
to do was to dress some cold chisels. The first one I 
got hold of had been drawn too thin on the end. I 
got it red hot, and as there was nothing in sight 
with which to cut it off, I thought I would upset it a 
little and had struck it about four or five blows on 
the end when the foreman came to me and said : 

'• See here, young man, that will never do. Don't 
you know that it ruins tool steel to upset it? Do 
yau claim to be a tool smith and do the like of that? 
I guess you never dressed many tools. You are too 
young a man to know much about working steel any 
how, and when I see a man upset steel that settles it. 
I know he don't know nothing about dressing tools. ' r 

And so he went on from bad to worse and gave 
me an awful calling down and did not give me a 
chance to get a word in edgeways. But while he 
was blowing off his surplus steam I dressed and tem- 
pered the chisel. 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 23" 

The foreman said: "That chisel is good for 
nothing." 

I knew he was mistaken, so said: "Look here; 
if I have spoiled this chisel I will pay for it; but be- 
fore it goes any farther let's try the chisel and see if 
it is ruined or not." 

"It's no use to fool away time trying that thing. 
It has been upset at the point and drawn entirely too- 
thin and too far back. It looks more like a wood 
chisel than anything else ; it might possibly cut lead 
but will not last two minutes on iron." 

I told him "we would see about that." I 
ground the chisel, then took another chisel and put 
it in a vice and with a four-pound hammer I drove 
the thin chisel into the solid tool steel one-half inch 
deep in four or five different places ; then took the 
chisel in a pair of tongs and held it on a large piece 
of cast iron which happened to be lying on the floor. 
I told the helper to hit the chisel with the sledge. 
He picked up a fourteen-pound sledge and went at it. 
By this time there was at least a dozen men standing 
around to see what the new toolsmith was up to. 
The helper struck the chisel forty or more blows and 
made the big chips fly clear across the shop. I then 
held the chisel on the horn of the anvil so that the 
edge projected over about two inches and struck it 
ten or twelve good blows sideways on the end with a 
two pound hammer, but the chisel did not bend or 
break and the edge was not damaged. 



24 THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 

They were a surprised crowd. They had nothing 
to say, but I had. Perhaps I said too much. I told 
the boss that "I knew exactly what I was doing 
when I was working steel, and would bet him or any 
man in the shop fifty dollars against ten that the 
chisel I had dressed would do more work without be- 
ing dressed again than any ten chisels that any man 
in the shop could make," but none of them took me 
up. About this time the Superintendent of the ma- 
chine shop came in and stopped to see what was 
going on. 

I said: "Look here, gentlemen," taking one 
hundred dollars from my pocket, "I will give you 
a still better chance. You can have sixteen chisels to 
my one and I will bet you one hundred dollars to 
twenty-five that this one chisel will do more work 
than your sixteen chisels will." 

The Superintendent said to the foreman black- 
smith : "Sixteen chisels to one, and one hundred 
dollars to twenty-five ! That is a good bet even if 
you lose; take him up." 

The foreman did not feel sporty just then. He 
-aid: "Take him up yourself if you want to; I am 
not betting on another man's game." 

I said : "It will be money in your pocket not to ; 
but if I were foreman of a large shop like this and 
had shot off my mouth like you have, I should 
-awfully hate to be bluffed as you have been." That 
was too much for the old chap. He got angry and 
told me " to get out of there, the sooner the better." 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 25 

Well, I took his advise and got out and never 
went back. If I had kept my mouth shut I might 
have stayed there and had a good job, but guess 
there was nothing lost, for I soon got another job in 
a shop near by at easier work and better wages. I 
saw the old foreman several times after that, but he 
never saw me ; that did not hurt my feelings any. 
Since then I have often offered to put up from 
twenty-five to one hundred dollars to back my word 
and tools, but have never found a man who would 
put up the cash. I have found it to be an excellent 
way to shut men up when they get too fresh. I 
never make any statements that I cannot prove, and 
never allow any one to bluff me. 

Forging Hammers, 

A good hand-made hammer is something that 
every blacksmith and machinist is proud of. Ham- 
mers should be made of a good grade of steel con- 
taining about eighty points carbon. To forge a 
hammer, heat the steel evenly to a bright red or dark 
yellow heat and punch the eye first ; then fuller it all 
around on both sides of the eye. Use a small fuller 
first and leave stock enough in the middle to allow 
for working the eye to proper size. The eye should 
be punched with a small punch made expressly for 
that purpose ; it should be tapering and about twice 
as w de as it is thick; the edges should be rounding. 
The punch should be about three-eighths wide by 
one-fourth of an inch thick at the small end, and 



26 THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL, WORKER. 

about one inch wide by one-half inch thick at the 
large end, and about five inches long. The next 
thing to be done is to spread the eye. This should be 
done at a bright, red heat with a fuller and set ham- 
mer. After spreading the steel at the eye, fuller it a 
little all around again ; draw the ends down to the 
desired size, then fuller it again with a larger fuller. 
The eye should be worked on both sides, and the 
tapering drift or punch should be driven in from 
each side so as to finish the eye larger at each end 
than it is in the middle. If the eye should be made 
the same size all the way through, the hammer wiJl 
not stay on the handle nearly as well as it will if the 
eye is smaller in the middle. When you have the 
hammer finished to size and shape, heat it to an even, 
bright red; stand it on end and strike it on top; 
one good blow will be sufficient; do not strike it 
hard enough to knock it out of shape. The fullering 
and punching the eye causes strains in the steel; 
the blow on the end will relieve the strains. After 
this is done the hammer should be thoroughly an- 
nealed. 

You have all seen hammers that were cracked or 
broken at the eye, or one end broken off. The rea- 
son of this[is, the man who made the hammer did not 
remove the strains. After the hammer is annealed 
it should be finished up by turning and filing, then 
hardened and tempered to a dark straw color. A 
hammer should be tempered so that a good, fine file 
will cut it a little. It is better to have a hammer a 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 27 

little too soft than too hard. Never temper a hammer 
hard enough to mark the anvil, for hammers are 
easier to dress than anvils. 

Sledges should be hardened and tempered the 
same as hammers. Flatters, fullers and all anvil 
tools should be struck on the end to relieve strains 
caused by forging, then thoroughly annealed. Never 
fuller a flatter or swage below the eye, and do not 
draw the heads of battering tools too small. If 
these directions are followed you will not be troubled 
with tools breaking. 

I have found it to be a good idea to harden the 
heads of battering tools. To do this, heat the head 
to a dark red and harden ; then draw the temper to a 
very pale blue. 

When I was working for the Morgan Engii eering 
Company, of Alliance, O., one day the man on the 
next fire to me made a nice flatter. He worktd < n it 
about three hours, fullered it in on the corners below 
the eye and sn oothed it up all over in fine style. 
He then hardened it and drew the temper, then 
polished it up all over. When finished he showed it 
to me and said it was tl e best flatter in the shop; 
but he did not use it more than an hour until it 
broke square in two where it had been fullered. He 
was so badly beaten he could not say anything for a 
while, but finally said "that the steel is good for 
nothing." That is just what I expected to hear him 
say. 1 have often heard other smiths say the same 
thing when their tools broke. I needed a new flatter 



28 THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 

just then so made one from the same bar of steel. I 
used it very hard, but it never broke. 

He wanted to know why his natter broke and 
mine stood so well, when I told him the reason. He 
said: "That would not make any difference ; you 
must have tempered your natter in oil, or something 
else to toughen the steel ; it is poor stuff, anyhow, 
and your natter will break in two just like mine did, 
some of these times." But he was badly mistaken. 

Some smiths are always having trouble with their 
hot and cold cutters which either break or bend; 
some will crack in hardening. The*e difficulties can 
be overcome by following the directions given for 
making cold chisel?. 

A cold cutter should be made of a good grade of 
steel containing about seventy-five points of carbon. 
Leave them heavy enough to stand the work they are 
intended to do. Cold cutters should be forged and 
hardened the same as hand cold chisels, but should 
be tempered a trifle softer. If you follow these di- 
rections you will be able to make a cold cutter which 
will cut off at least a thousand pieces of seven- 
eighths inch octagon tool steel without being dressed ; 
or cut from thirty to fifty large steel rails in two 
without being dressed. I have seen over a dozen 
chisels go to pieces on cutting one steel rail in two, 
but they were none of my make. Remember, the 
secret of making good chisels lies in the hammering 
and h' ating, but not in the hardening bath. Chisels 
and cutters of all kinds can be successfully hardened 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 29 

in clear water, salt water or any of the hardening 
solutions given in this book. 

Forging Twist Drills. 

This is something you do not see done every day. 
To make a one-half inch straight shank drill, take a 
piece of one-half inch round steel; flatten three or 
four inches of it; do not stretch the steel endways; 
just flatten it to about one-eighth of an inch thick; 
do not strike it on the edges only enough to keep it 
straight; let it spread just as wide as it will. Be 
sure to have it the same thickness back as far as it 
has been flattened. Then heat it a bright red; stand 
it up edgeways on the anvil; take a light hammer, 
begin at the back end of the flattened portion and 
strike it on the left hand corner, or, in other words, 
strike it on top; only reach over to the left enough 
to catch the corner. Ket p working toward the point 
with quick, light blows; when you get to the point 
turn the drill over and begin at the back end as be- 
fore. 

You will see you have knocked it a little in a 
twist all the way along, and have upset the edges the 
entire length. That is just what we want. Keep 
right on as long as it is red hot; then heat it again 
and hammer the same as before. It will look n ore 
like a twist drill every time you strike it. If you 
work fast you can forge a nice drill in about five or 
six heats; when done forging, carefully anneal it, 
then file out the flutes with a round file and finish 



30 THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL, WORKER. 

the edges and sides with a fine flat file. Harden it 
the entire length of the twist and draw the temper to 
a straw color. Any skilful smith can, with a little 
practice, make a nice drill. 

An excellent reamer can be made in the same way, 
only forge the twist in it the opposite way (left 
hand). Make the reamer tapering instead of 
straight, and file the clearance in it the same way as 
a twist drill. This will make a right-hand reamer. 

I have made a great many twist drills, and have 
often been called a liar for saying I made them, be- 
cause the man I was talking to had never seen a good 
hand-made twist drill. Whenever a man tells me he 
does not believe I made the drill, I always offer to 
put up twenty -five dollars or more that I can make 
another one just as good in his presence. That al- 
ways settles the matter in short order. 

Forging a Butcher Knife. 

Steel for knife blades should contain about one 
hundred points of carbon. 

To make a butcher knife you should have a piece 
of seven-eighths by one-eighth inch steel. Cut off 
enough to make the knife the desired length ; heat it 
ti a dark red and bend it a little edgeways; then 
draw the inside edge. It will straighten in drawing. 
When drawing the edge, commence at one end and 
work to the other, then turn it over and work as be- 
fore. Be careful not to over-heat the steel, and ham- 
mer as much on one side as you do on the other; 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 31 

do not hammer after the red has disappeared. Draw 
the knife as thin as you want it, and trim the point 
to the desired shape. If you hammer more on one 
side than the other, the knife will be liable to spring 
in hardening. When you are ready to harden the 
knife heat it edge down, in a clean fire, using very 
little, if any, blast; heat it evenly the entire length 
to a dark red. Only heat the blade hot enough to 
harden about one-half its width ; then plunge it in 
the bath edge down. Any bath may be used — oil of 
most any kind will do. By only hardening the front 
half of the blade you will leave the back tough and 
strong. Knives hardened in this way cannot be 
easily broken. 

If knife blades are hardened in water, draw the 
temper to a purple ; but if hardened in oil or grease 
draw the temper to a straw color. 

Woodworking tools should be made out of good 
steel containing about one hundred and ten points of 
carbon, and carefully forged according to directions 
given for forging cold chisels. This method holds 
good on all flat tools, no matter what they are in- 
tended to cut. Woodwork tools should be hardened 
and drawn to a straw color. 

Every shop needs a good steel worker, but lots of 
them have to get along with poor tools because they 
cannot get a man who understands working steel. 
This is why there is so much self-hardening steel 
used, simply because they could not get their tools 
dressed so they would do the work. If a tool is 



32 THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 

properly forged, hardened and tempered it will cut 
harder material than any self -hardening steel. 

Self-hardening steel is not a success for turning 
chilled rolls. A tool made of a good grade of steel 
and properly hardened is far better. For roughing 
sanded castings, and for work that runs at a high 
speed, the self-hardening steel is the best, but not for 
a finishing tool. 

Making 31 a chine Tools of Common Iron. 

A lathe or planer can be made of common iron 
which will cut the hardest kind of material. To do 
this, forge the iron tool and grind it ; then take a 
piece of thin cast iron; heat the tool almost to a 
welding heat; also heat the cast iron to a melting 
heat. Rub the melting cast iron over the end of the 
tool ; it will unite to the wrought iron ; get enough 
of the cast iron onto the tool to form a heavy plate 
on the cutting edge and plunge it into cold salt 
water; draw no temper. This will make a tool that 
will cut glass or anything else except a diamond. 
You cannot make a mark on it with the best file in 
the world. I have made tools in this way which cut 
chilled castings that self-hardening tools would not 
begin to out. 

Tools made in this way will not wear very long 
because the cast iron plate is thin. It is the cast 
iron that does the cutting. Remember that all tool 
steel forgings should be annealed and all tools 
should be annealed or heated red hot and allowed to 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 33 

cool in the air. It is very important to have an even 
heat for forging, hardening and annealing. An- 
other very important point in forging is to have an 
anvil which has a good, smooth face. Never use a 
hammer or sledge which has a rough face or sharp 
corners, and avoid hammering on the edge of tools 
whenever possible. 

Forging Self -Hardening Steel. 

To do this, heat the steel slowly and evenly ; give 
it plenty of time to become heated clear through; do 
not overheat it or hammer at too low a heat. Self- 
hardening steel will stand a higher heat than most 
smiths think it will, providing it is heated evenly and 
slowly. When you have the tool forged to shape, 
heat the cutting end to a bright red and lay it out to 
cool; let the hot end project over what you lay it on 
so that the air will circulate freely around it. If 
tools treated in this way are not hard enough, cool 
them in a cold air blast, but never put self-hardening 
steel in water. " Novo Steel" must be forged at a 
very light, yellow heat, then heated to white welding 
heat and hardened in an air blast. It is almost im- 
possible to burn Novo steel. " Zenith Steel " should 
be forged at a white heat ; should not be hammered 
only at a very high heat; it cannot be overheated. 
Zenith steel should be hardened by heating to a drip- 
ping, white, welding heat and thrust the point into a 
block of cold lead, or boiling water, or cold air blast. 
" Bex SteeV must be forged at a bright red or dark 



34 THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 

yellow heat and allowed to cool in the air; then re- 
heat the portion desired hard to a white, welding 
heat and harden it in an air blast. 

For all the new steels follow the directions sent 
with the steel and you will have no trouble. The 
new air-hardening steels are easily forged and far su- 
perior to the old-fashioned self-hardening steels in 
eve r y way. These new air-hardening steels will not 
give satisfaction unless the above directions are 
closely followed. They must be forged at a high 
heat and hardened at a much higher heat. Such 
treatment would ruin ordinary carbon steel. When 
working carbon steel remember that the proper 
forging heat is too hot for hardening or annealing, 
and the hardening heat is not hot enough for forg- 
ing. To obtain the best results with ordinary tool 
steel, forge the tool, then anneal it or heat it to an 
even dark red and allow it to cool in the air; then 
heat again to a dark red and harden. For dressing 
all kinds of tools follow directions given for forging. 

Dressing Anvils. 

This is a job which most smiths are afraid of, but 
is not as great an undertaking as some imagine it to 
be. If the anvil is not too large it can be easily 
handled by two short bars properly fitted into the 
holes in the anvil made for that purpose. The 
easiest and best way to dress an anvil is to anneal it 
and have the face planed, then harden it properly 
and the anvil will be as good as new. If you cannot 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 35 

get the face planed it can be dressed hot, then when 
cold it should be filed or ground smooth before 
hardening. Build a large, deep fire; heat the anvil 
nearly all over ; if you heat only the face it will be 
very liable to loosen the steel face and ruin the anvil. 
When you get it to an even, bright red take it out 
and upset the edges, then smooth it up all over the 
face with a large natter. When heating be careful 
not to overheat the corners. For hardening follow 
directions given for hardening anvils in Hardening 
and Tempering. 

Forging, Hardening and Tempering Springs. 

Making springs is a job that the majority of 
smiths are not very familiar with, and a job that re- 
quires care and skill. For all small forged springs 
use tool steel of about eighty or ninety points carbon. 
Small springs should be forged heavy enough to al- 
low the springs to be filed smooth before hardening. 

When forging springs be very careful not to over- 
heat the steel, and do not hammer it after the red has 
disappeared; and do not hammer on the edge any 
more than is actually necessary. When you heat a 
spring to harden be very carefel to get an even heat, 
but do not heat it any hotter than is necessary to 
produce the desired results. 

Do not attempt to heat a very small or thin 
spring in an open fire. If you have nothing but an 
ordinary forge with which to heat the spring, take a 
piece of pipe of suitable size and plug up one en I air 



36 THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 

tight; place it in the fire and cover it over with 
coke ; leave the open end project out a few inches, 
then heat the spring inside of the pipe. 

The above method of heating is not as good as a 
furnace, but is a great improvement over heating in 
an open fire. 

Very thin springs harden nicely by heating red hot 
and plunging into a cake of common yellow soap; if 
too stiff, draw the temper a little. All kinds of 
springs harden nicely in oil; melted tallow gives 
good results. After a spring is hardened in oil or 
grease it is necessary to draw the temper. To do 
this, hold the spring over the fire until the oil burns 
off; then try the spring; if it is too stiff, dip it into 
the oil again, taking it out instantly and proceed as 
before. For some grades of steel it may be neces- 
sary to burn the oil off three or four times to obtain 
the desired elasticity. Some kinds of springs give 
good results when hardened in boiling water and the 
temper drawn to a blue; this is all right with some 
kinds of steel but will not do for all kinds. Springs 
can be successfully hardened in salt water or any 
bath used for hardening tools. Heat the spring to a 
dark, cherry red and plunge it edgeways, straight 
down in the bath. 1 his will make the spring very 
hard. 

To temper springs, harden in this way: You 
should have a box or barrel, partly covered, so as to 
make it as dark inside as possible. Then heat the 
spring slowly and evenly until you can see the first 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 37 

trace of dark red when the spring is held in the 
dark; then allow it to cool in the air. If properly 
done this makes an excellent spring. I believe it to 
be the best method of hardening and tempering trap 
springs. 

Another very good way to harden and temper 
trap springs, made of tool steel, is to heat them to a 
very dark red, and harden in water at about one 
hundred degrees F. If this makes the spring too 
stiff draw the temper by dipping the spring in oil 
and burning it off as described before. If you have 
several springs to temper, fasten them together and 
hang them in a kettle of melted tallow; place the 
kettle over the fire and boil for a few minutes, then 
remove the springs and allow them to cool in the air. 

Good springs cannot be expected if the steel is 
overheated in forging and hardening. All light 
springs should be made of tool steel; large springs 
should be made of spring steel, .springs made of 
spring steel should be hardened in oil or tallow and 
tempered by burning off the oil or tallow as described 
before. Spring steel contains considerable carbon 
and will not stand high heats. It will hirden at a 
very low red. 

When forging all kinds of springs be very careful 
not to overheat the steel; hammer it thoroughly all 
over on both flat sides when the steel is a very dark 
red, but do not hammer after the red has disap- 
peared; and do not hammer on the edge after you 
have commenced to pack the steel. Round springs 



38 THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 

should be hardened and tempered the same as flat 
ones. 

Small coiled springs that are made of drawn wire 
and coiled cold, will not require hardening or temper- 
ing. 

Nearly all small coiled springs are coiled cold 
and made of drawn steel, up to and including one- 
fourth inch wire. Occasionally larger sizes are 
coiled cold. 

Coiled springs which are coiled hot will require 
hardening and tempering, and should be done by 
heating the springs to a cherry red and plunging in 
cold oil ; then burn off the oil over the fire, or boil 
the springs in melted tallow as described before. 

Brass springs cannot be hardened by heating and 
cooling in a bath. Copper and brass is tempered by 
rolling or drawing cold, and annealed by heating red 
hot and cooling in water or brine. 

Welding Steel. 

This is a subject in which every blacksmith has 
had more or less experience. We all know that some 
grades of steel can be weldtd } nd others cannot. 
The more carbon steel contains the more difficult it is 
to weld. Steel which contains over one hundred and 
twenty points of carbon will not weld in a satisfac- 
tory manner; neither will the air hardening steels. 
To successfully weld steel it is necessary to have 
a good, clean fire as free fiom sulphur as possible. 
For welding on the anvil a short lap gives the best 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 39 

results. If you are troubled with the steel slipping 
back, take a blunt chisel and cut a notch in both 
pieces close to the back end of the scarf ; when you 
take the pieces out to weld place the two chisel cuts 
together ; this will prevent slipping. If you wish to 
make a "V" or split weld, notch the pieces that 
go inside and hammer the laps down over it. For 
welding flat thin pieces of steel some smiths split 
both pieces. If you wish to do this, split both pieces 
before you scarf them. Then when you scaif the 
ends let the inside corners of the scarfs spread as 
much as they will ; then when you put them together 
the inside corners of the scarfed ends will reach onto 
the solid steel and will insure a good weld and leave 
the center strong and solid. The above is the best 
way of welding flat springs. After the weld is made, 
forge the steel to the desired shape, but leave it a 
little thicker than the finished size ; then finish it to 
the proper thickness with a flatter and sledge; give 
it several good blows on both flat sides while the 
steel is a dark red, but do not hammer on the edges 
after you have commenced to pack the steel. 

To weld tool or spring steel it is necessary to use 
a flux to keep the steel from burning. Borax is gen- 
erally used for this purpose. Borax always contains 
sulphur and sulphur is injurious to steel. If you 
have nothing but borax you can greatly improve it 
by melting it and boiling it dry. It will then be 
what is called charred borax and will be found to 
give far better results than borax in its natural state. 



40 THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 

Any of the following welding compounds will give 
far better results than borax on all kinds of steel. 

The first is an excellent compound. I have used 
it several years and on all kinds of work with splen- 
did results. I paid three dollars for the recipe and 
have of i en sold it for from one to three dollars. 

WELDING COMPOUND NO. 1. 

Pulverized Borax lib. 

Carbonate of Iron 2 oz. 

Black Oxide of Manganese 3 oz. 

Mix thoroughly and use as borax, only heat the 
eteel a little hotter. 

WELDING COMPOUND NO. 2. 

Pulverized Borax 1 lb. 

Nitrate of Potash .1 oz. 

Carbonate of Iron . 2 oz. 

Use as borax. 

WELDING COMPOUND NO. 3. 

Clean sand. 5 lbs. 

Powdered Sulphate of Iron. 3 oz. 

Black Oxide of Manganese 3 oz. 

Table salt 4 oz. 

This compound gives splendid results on open 
hearth and Bessemer steel, but is not intended for 
tool steel. Use as borax. 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 41 

WELDING COMPOUND NO 4. 

Borax 1 lb. 

Salt Peter 2 oz. 

Powdered Charcoal |oz. 

Use as borax. 

WELDING COMPOUND NO. 5. 

Borax 1 oz. 

Steel or wrought iron filings 1 oz. 

Rosin 1 oz. 

Sal- Ammoniac 2 oz. 

Carbonate of Iron 2 oz. 

Use as borax. 

WELDING COMPOUND NO. 6. 

Borax. ... 1 lb. 

Dry Venetian Red 4 oz. 

Black Oxide of Manganese 2 oz. 

Use as borax. 

WELDING COMPOUND NO. 7. 

Borax 1 lb. 

Fine wrought iron drillings ...... .1 lb. 

Clean welding sand 1 lb. 

Carbonate of iron 3 oz. 

Mix thoroughly. Use on both sides of the scarf. 

WELDING COMPOUND NO. 8. 

Pulverized glass 1 lb. 

Pulverized borax 1 lb. 

Use as borax. 
4 



42 THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 

WELDING COMPOUND NO. 9. 

Charred Borax 1 lb. 

Carbonate of Iron 3 oz. 

Use as borax. 

Compounds Nos. 1 and 5 are excellent for welding 
tool steel and restoring burned steel. To test, take 
an old file, heat the end until it flies to pieces, then, 
dip the end in the compound and let it remain four 
or five seconds; then with quick, light blows weld up 
the end, draw it out and make a cold chisel out of it. 
You will be surprised at the results. Overheated 
steel will never be as good as it was before being 
overheated. But accidents will happen to the best of 
us sometimes, and it is well to know how to make the 
best of them. All of these compounds are first-class 
and are not expensive, are easily made and far better 
than borax for all classes of work. 

We often see a smith take a dozen heats on a 
weld and then not get a solid job. Some are afraid 
to heat the steel hot enough, others heat it too hot. 
Some will plaster both pieces all over with borax and 
then try to stick them together with both scarfs 
swimming with melted borax ; the chances are it will 
slip and he will take another heat. After awhile he 
may succeed in sticking them together, but it will 
not be a solid weld. 

If you use borax give the pieces a couple of good 
blows, over the anvil, to knock all the borax off the 
scarfs before putting them together to weld. We 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL. WORKER. 43 

often hear old smiths say, "there is nothing as good 
as borax for welding steel," but most smiths know 
better. Any of the welding compounds given in this 
work will give better results than borax, but borax 
is better than nothing for welding. There are several 
good welding compounds on the market which are 
patented, but for welding tool or spring steel com- 
pound No. 1 is the best I have ever used. All the 
compounds and solutions in this book are good and 
have been thoroughly tested. You need not be 
afraid to try any of them. If you follow directions 
you will be pleased with the results. 

When welding steel do not be afraid to use a 
little elbow grease. A few good, quick, hard blows 
are worth a hundred light ones ; if you cannot strike 
a blow that will do some good, do not strike at all ; 
just stand and look at it. 

Large tools are often made of soft steel and have 
a tool steel face welded on. This makes a good tool 
if properly done. To do this, first forge the soft 
steel to the desired shape, then heat it to a bright red 
and lay the cold tool steel in position and take a good 
welding heat on the two together. By first heating 
the soft steel to a bright red you will be able to get a 
good welding heat on both pieces without burning 
the tool steel. When ready to weld commence at one 
end or one side and work to the other ; weld it solid 
all over the first heat if possible. The high heat 
necessary to weld is an injury to the tool steel, and 
unless a good welding compound is used the steel 



44 THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 

will show the effects of the high heat. A better way 
to make large tools is to fasten the tool steel face on 
with set screws. 

Some smiths prefer a split weld for steel, but I 
cannot recommend it only for thin, flat pieces. Any 
steel that I cannot weld without splitting cannot be 
welded at all. My objections to a split weld is, the 
inside piece is very liable to slip or draw forward in 
welding which will leave a hole or weak place, and 
will not look good. 

When welding tool steel to iron or soft steel, al- 
ways get a good, high heat on the iron or soft steel 
and as high a heat on the tool steel as it will stand 
without injury. Then commence welding on one 
side and work to the other, or commence in the mid- 
dle and work both ways ; never strike one side and 
then the other, for if you do the dross cannot get out, 
which will prevent solid welding. In some cases a 
poor weld may cost some one their life. Let your 
motto be a solid weld or none at all. 

If you wish to weld a very small piece to a large 
one, take a good welding heat on the large piece and 
only a red heat on the small one ; put them together 
and use the hammer smartly and the weld will be as 
good as if both pieces had been at a welding heat. I 
have often welded very small pieces onto large ones 
by taking a good welding heat on the large piece and 
not putting the small one in the fire at all. The heat 
from the large piece will put a welding heat on the 
small piece in a very few seconds. 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 45 

When welding steel be careful to get a good, 
clean heat and do not use too much borax or welding 
compound. If you use borax be careful to knock off 
all melted borax from the scarfs before putting them 
together to weld. Some welding compounds give the 
best results if left on the scarfs, others should be 
knocked off the same as borax. 

Welding New Ends on Boiler Flues. 

Flare the long piece out, draw to a thin edge, fit 
the short piece inside ; make the lap about one-half 
inch long. Have a clean fire with a good body of 
fuel under the work ; heat the flue evenly, using a 
good welding compound, and have a heavy block of 
iron on the forge at the end of the short piece; this 
will keep the short piece from working out; when 
hot enough to weld tap it lightly on the end; then 
with a light hammer weld down the lap in the fire; 
do not remove it from the fire until welded. 

Annealing. 

The definition of the word annealing is to soften 
by heating and cooling slowly. The object of an- 
nealing steel is to make it soft enough to work 
easily, and to remove internal strains which always 
exist in steel that has not been annealed properly, 
which is the result of hammering or rolling. If these 
internal strains are not removed before the article is 
hardened, the chances are it will spring or crack in 
hardening. Internal strains are the only cause of 



46 THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 

steel springing or cracking, and great care should be 
used to guard against strains in steel that is to be 
hardened. Uneven heating, uneven hammering and 
uneven cooling are the chief causes of internal 
strains. 

To anneal a piece of steel we heat it red hot and 
cool it slowly ; the longer it is cooling the softer it 
will be. 

Steel may be annealed by several different meth- 
ods, but in all cases it must be heated red hot and slow- 
ly cooled. In most shops a box of air slacked lime 
or wood ashes is used to cool the steel in. Either of 
these answers the purpose nicely, providing the box 
is large enough and its contents kept perfectly dry. 
The way I do is to heat a large piece of iron and put 
it in the lime and let it remain there while the steel 
is heating; then when the steel is red hot take the 
iron out and put the steel in the same place and 
cover it about six inches deep with the lime or ashes. 
In this way the lime or ashes will be hot and perfect- 
ly dry and good results will be sure to follow. In 
some shops they use a box of charred leather. If 
leather is used it is necessary to have a box with a 
good, tight fitting cover and keep it closed as much 
as possible. 

It is positively necessary to heat steel slowly and 
evenly for annealing and every other purpose. Lime, 
ashes or charred leather will be found to be a satis- 
factory means of annealing if the above directions 
are followed. 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 47 

A very good method of annealing which I have 
used many times, with good results, is as follows : 
Take a piece of soft, pine board an inch thick and 
large enough to hold the pieces to be annealed; 
make a hole in the middle of the lime, place the 
board in the bottom of it ; then when the steel is hot 
■enough put it on the board and lay another board 
the same size on- top of the steel and cover up with 
lime ; the pieces of board will smolder and keep the 
steel hot a long time. The process of cooling will be 
very slow and the results satisfactory. 

When steel must be annealed and cannot be al- 
lowed time enough to cool in lime, fairly good results 
may be had by placing the hot steel between two 
pieces of soft, pine board and allow it to cool with- 
out burying in anything. This will be found far 
better than water annealing. Water annealing has 
many advocates, but I cannot recommend it only in 
cases where the steel must be had for immediate use. 
Water annealing is done by heating the steel red hot 
and allowing it to cool in the air until every trace of 
red heat has disappeared when held in a dark place ; 
then plunged into water and left there until cold. If 
warm, soapy water or oil is used the steel will be 
softer than it would be if dipped into cold water. 

In annealing steel never heat it any hotter than 
you would to harden, and in hardening never heat 
any hotter than is necessary to produce the desired 
results. Also, be careful to heat the steel slowly and 
evenly all through ; for steel that is annealed at an 



48 THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL. WORKER. 

uneven heat is very apt to spring or crack when it is 
hardened. There is ten times as much steel ruined 
by overheating and uneven heating as there is by 
any other causes combined. A man to be a success- 
ful steel worker must understand the nature of steel 
and keep his mind and his eyes on his work. 

Another way of annealing is to pack the steel in 
iron boxes, using charcoal for packing material. Put 
about one inch of pulverized charcoal in the bottom 
of the box, then put in a layer of the articles to be 
annealed ; but do not let them come within about 
one-half inch of each other or within one inch of the 
box ; fill in between the pieces with charcoal and 
cover them about one inch deep, then put in another 
layer of the steel and so on until the box is filled. 
If you do not have enough steel to fill the box, fill it 
up with charcoal ; put on the cover and seal it tight- 
ly with fireclay, then the box is ready to be put in the 
furnace. As a means of being able to know when 
the contents of the box are heated clear through, you 
should have several small holes drilled in the lid of 
the box near the center ; run a small rod of steel or 
iron in each hole long enough to reach the bottom of 
the box and project above the cover about two inches. 

When the box has had time enough to become red 
hot clear through pull out one of the little rods ; if it 
is red hot all over you will know the steel is also; 
but if the rod is not hot enough wait a while and 
pull out another rod and so on until the proper heat 
is reached, then put out the fire and let the work 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 49> 

cool down with the furnace, or the box can be re- 
moved from the furnace and buried in lime or ashes ; 
this is safer than leaving the box to cool in the furnace. 
If you leave the box in the furnace, watch it care- 
fully and be sure that the walls of the furnace are- 
not hot enough to cause the steel to become over- 
heated. If the furnace is too hot you should leave 
the door open a while or take the box out until the 
furnace gets cooled down some; then put the box 
back, close the door and let the work cool with the 
furnace, which will be very slow, and the result will 
be satisfactory. 

Charcoal and charred leather contains carbon and 
will help to keep steel from becoming decarbonized. 
Heating steel weakens jt and lowers the percentage 
of carbon unless something is used that will restore 
carbon to steel. Bone should never be used for an- 
nealing or hardening valuable tools, because bone 
contains considerable phosphorous which is very in- 
jurious to steel and is the worst impurity steel ever 
contains. 

All tools that are liable to spring or crack in 
hardening should be roughed out within about one- 
eighth of an inch of the finished size, then thorough- 
ly annealed again. If it is a tool that has a hole in 
it the hole or holes should be made but a little 
smaller than the finished size ; then after annealing 
the second time the holes can be bored out to size and 
the job finished up. 



3>0 THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 

The object of annealing after the job is roughed 
out and holes made is to relieve all strains and to al- 
low the steel to expand and contract under nearly 
the same shape as it will when hardened. If this 
second annealing is properly done it will do away 
with a great deal of springing and cracking in hard- 
ening. If the piece springs in annealing do not 
•straighten it cold ; if it is not large enough to finish 
without straightening, heat it red hot and straighten 
it. If steel is hammered cold it will be sure to 
spring or crack when hardened. Machinists and tool 
makers often hammer steel cold, and then when it 
is hardened it springs and the man that hardened it 
.gets the blame. 

I have had lots of trouble in this way. Some 
machinists and toolmakers know about as much 
about steel and its proper treatment as a hog knows 
about Sunday school. All they know is to get the 
Job machined to size and shape regardless of how 
many strains they cause and how many square 
•corners they put in the job. Square corners always 
invite cracks. If an article cracks or springs in 
'hardening the blame is always laid on the man that 
hardened it, or else on the steel, and perhaps the 
hardener gets discharged on the grounds that he 
-does not understand working steel. I was once dis- 
charged in this very same way. They hired a new 
man, he met the same fate. They kept right on 
Siireing and discharging until the men in charge came 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 51 

to their senses and placed the blame where it be- 
longed. 

Machine shop foremen as a class are the most 
bullheaded men in the world. They think they 
know all about steel and every thing else. If a man 
had seventy-five years' experience in working steel, 
and should try to explain or tell a machine shop 
foreman anything about steel the chances are he 
would not listen to him, and about the next thing 
Mr. Steel Worker knew he would be out of a job and 
some other man that possibly could tell steel from 
iron would be working in his place. So be careful 
not to talk too much. Remember a still tongue 
makes a wise head. 

To be a successful steel worker you must study the 
nature of steel and know what it is liable to do un- 
der different conditions and how to avoid unde- 
sirable results, no matter whether it belongs to your 
department or not. 

In heating steel never let it come in contact with 
cast iron, for cast iron will extract carbon from the 
steel when they are both at a red heat. Never keep 
steel red hot any longer than necessary ; never blame 
the steel for bad results caused by your own careless- 
ness or the ignorance of the man that machined the 
job. Self-hardening steel can be annealed soft 
enough to machine fairly well by heating as hot as 
the steel will stand without injury, then burying it 
in a box of sawdust and burying box and all in lime 
or ashes. Now, in conclusion on this subject, I will 



52 THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 

repeat, do not overheat or unevenly heat steel, and 
never subject steel to heat any longer than is actu- 
ally necessary for it to become evenly heated. Steel 
that has been kept at a high heat for an unnecessary 
length of time will be very coarse grained, of a dry, 
brittle nature, will not refine when hardened and will 
be entirely worthless for all sorts of cutting tools. 
Never allow steel to lay in the fire and "soak," as 
some smiths term it. As soon as the steel reaches 
the proper heat take it out of the fire immediately. 

Hardening and Tempering . 

Tool steel is hardened by heating it red hot and 
cooling it in water or other hardening bath. A bath 
that will absorb the heat the quickest will make steel 
the hardest. Clean water is generally used and 
gives fairly good results for hardening most tools. 
A very cold bath should never be used for hardening 
steel except when the bath is small and the article to 
be hardened is large. In such cases the bath will be- 
come warm before the steel is entirely cooled. A 
cold bath is very liable to cause the steel to crack, 
as the results of contracting too suddenly, or if it 
does not crack in hardening the sudden contraction 
is sure to cause internal strains which will cause the 
tool to break easier than it would if it had been 
hardened in a bath that had the chill off. 

The temperature of the hardening bath should be 
about sixty degrees F. If the bath is too hot, steel 
will not harden sufficiently for cutting tools. A very 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 53 

good bath can be made by adding three pounds of 
salt to one gallon of soft water; there should be 
several gallons of the bath for small work and a bar- 
rel or more for large work. If the bath is small and 
there is several pieces to harden it will soon become 
too hot to properly harden the steel. There is no 
danger of getting the bath too large ; the larger the 
better ; the benefit gained by having a large bath is, 
it will remain at the proper temperature. If steel is 
heated uniformly and hardened in a bath of uniform 
temperature then all the pieces will be of the same 
degree of hardness ; this is a very important point 
which cannot be gained if the bath is too small. 
There are a great many hardening solutions in use 
which give better results than clear water or salt 
water. I have thoroughly tested the following baths 
and know them to be better than water or brine : 

HARDENING SOLUTION NO. 1. 

Corrosive Sublimate 3 oz. 

Salt 6 lbs. 

Soft Water 4 g a l. 

This solution is poison, so be careful. 

HARDENING SOLUTION NO. 2. 

Sal-Ammoniac 6 oz. 

Corrosive Sublimate 3 oz. 

Soft Water 4 gal. 

This is also poison, but is an excellent bath for 
all kinds of cutting tools. Draw the temper to the 
desired degree of hardness. 



54 THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 

HARDENING SOLUTION NO. 3. 

Blue Vitrol 4 oz. 

Prussiate of Potash 4 lbs. 

Salt 6 lbs. 

Dissolve in one gallon of warm water, then add 
four gallons of raw linseed oil and one-half pound 
pulverized charcoal. This is an excellent bath for 
thin tools that must be hard and tough. If too 
hard, draw the temper. 

HARDENING SOLUTION NO. 4. 

Saltpeter 1 lb. 

Prussiate of Potash 3 lbs. 

Citric Acid 2 lbs. 

Carbonate of Iron 2 lbs. 

Salt 50 lbs. 

Soft Water 30 gals. 

The above is one of the very best solutions in use. 
The recipe was bought by the Kentucky Wagon 
Works for $100.00. In using these baths heat tho 
steel to a dark red and plunge into the bath ; keep 
the article moving in the bath until cold, then draw 
the temper to the desired degree of hardness. 

HARDENING COMPOUND NO. 1. 

Carbonate of Soda 1 oz. 

Carbonate of Potash 1 oz. 

Cyanide of Potash 1 oz. 

To be pulverized thoroughly and mixed together. 
Heat the tool to a dark red, dip the cutting edge in 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL. WORKER. 55 

the compound, return to the fire a few seconds then 
plunge in salt water or any of the before-mentioned 
solutions. This will make a tool hard enough to cut 
glass, chilled cast iron or any thing else except a 
diamond. Draw no temper after using this com- 
pound. 

HARDENING COMPOUND NO. 2. 

Salt 2 lbs. 

Saltpeter ^ lb. 

Alum \ lb. 

Salts of Tarter \ oz. 

Cyanide of Potash 1 oz. 

Carbonate of Ammonia 6 oz. 

Pulverize thoroughly and mix together; keep* 
dry. This compound is intended for hardening- 
tools made of cast iron. Heat tool to a good red;: 
sprinkle thoroughly with the compound and plunge- 
in hardening bath. Draw no temper. 

Oil of different kinds is used to accomplish vari- 
ous results. No one bath will answer for all classes 
of work. Tallow or lard is an excellent bath for 
knife blades and all tools that should be tough as- 
well as hard. Linseed oil makes a good bath for 
thin tools that require a hard edge. 

To harden very small drills heat to a dark red,, 
plunge in a lump of tallow and beeswax, equal parts- 
Draw no temper. 

To harden small or thin articles without spring- 
ing, heat to a dark red and plunge into a box of dry,. 



56 THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WOKKEK. 

common soda. Leave it in until cold; if too hard 
draw the temper. 

To harden knife blades, heat to a dark red and 
plunge edge down in a cake of common, yellow soap. 
Draw no temper. 

Blades hardened in this way will hold an edge 
equal to a razor, and are not easily broken. With 
all these hardening solutions and compounds heat the 
steel no hotter than is necessary to produce the de- 
sired results, as there can never be anything gained 
in overheating steel. If steel is overheated it will 
become very coarse grained, and when broken it will 
look more like pig iron than it does like steel, and 
will be very brittle and will not hold an edge, no mat- 
ter how the temper is drawn or to what color it is 
tempered. 

All articles that are liable to spring should be 
plunged into the bath perfectly perpendicular and as 
quickly as possible. If you take a long mandrell or 
anything of that sort and plunge it into the bath on 
the slant, or put it into the bath slowly it will be al- 
most sure to spring. This is a very important point 
and should be remembered by every hardener. Un- 
even heating will also cause steel to spring in hard- 
ening. 

To harden long pieces without springing they 
should be roughed out nearly to the finishing size, 
annealed again to relieve the strains, then fin- 
ished to size. Be careful to keep the steel from 
springing while heating. To do this, heat slowly and 



THE SCIENTIFIC bTEEL WORKER. 57 

evenly; turn the piece over often ; heat it inside of a 
straight piece of pipe or lay it on a straight piece of 
flat iron one inch thick ; lay the iron in the furnace 
first then lay your steel on the iron and heat steel and 
iron together. Be careful not to get steel any hotter 
than is necessary ; when it is hot enough take it out 
carefully and plunge it straight down into the bath 
as quickly as possible. The quicker you get it under 
water the better. If you have to harden tools that 
are liable to crack or spring, and they have not been 
annealed the second time, heat them red hot and lay 
them out until cold; then heat again and harden. 
This is not as good as annealing twice but is a great 
benefit. 

Hardening Milling Cutters 

or tools of irregular shape w T hich are liable to crack. 
A very good way is to take a dish and put in just 
enough water to cover the tool The teeth will 
harden quickly and the water will soon become hot 
so as to do away w T ith the danger of cracking. I 
have often used this method w T ith good results. A 
still better w T ay is to dip the tool in the hardening 
bath a few seconds, just long enough to harden the 
teeth or cutting surface ; then take it out and imme- 
diately plunge it into oil and leave it there until 
cold. I have hardened all kinds of thin and irregu- 
lar shaped tools in this way with satisfactory re- 
sults. In some shops they use a bath of oil and 
water. Of course the water will go the bottom ; 
5 



68 THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 

then when the tool is dipped it will pass through the 
oil first then into the water. This works nicely on 
some kinds of tools, but the best and safest way is to 
dip them in the water first and then in the oil as de- 
scribed above. 

To harden a piece of steel that has a deep hole in 
it, and it is desired to have the walls of the hole 
hardened the entire depth, it is necessary to force 
water to the bottom of the hole until the piece is en- 
tirely cold. To do this, get a piece of pipe about half 
the size of the hole; place it in the hole and dip both 
into the hardening bath; as soon as the article is 
under water commence forcing water through the 
pipe and do not stop until the article is cold. The 
pipe should go to within one-half inch of the bottom 
of the hole, and should be kept as near in the center as 
possible so that the water will come up all around 
alike. In hardening steel the amount of heat neces- 
sary varies with steels of different make and steels of 
different percentage of carbon. To accomplish dif- 
ferent results the steel makers put other hardening 
elements into steel besides carbon. The lowest heat 
at which a piece of steel will harden in a satisfactory 
manner is called the refining heat. When a piece of 
steel is hardened at this heat, if you break it you 
will see the grain is very fine and the steel will be 
very hard and strong. Heating steel red hot and 
cooling it quickly not only makes it hard, but also 
makes it brittle, and the higher the heat the more 
brittle the steel will be. 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 59 

When a tool is hardened and found to be too hard 
or too brittle, it is then necessary to reheat it so as to 
reduce the hardness and brittleness. This reheating 
is called tempering, or drawing the temper. This 
may be done in different ways. By heating a large 
piece of iron and laying the article to be tempered 
on the hot iron until the proper color appears ; then 
remove it from the hot iron and allow it to cool in the 
air or quench it in oil or water ; oil gives the best re- 
sults, but water is generally used. Before drawing 
the temper it is necessary to polish one or more of the 
surfaces so the color can be seen ; the temper can be 
drawn by holding the article over the fire or in hot 
oil ; when oil is used it is necessary to have a ther- 
mometer partly immersed in the oil so the bulb will 
be at a level with the work. It is best to put the 
work in the oil before it is heated, then heat the 
work and oil together, or else warm the work first 
then put it into the hot oil. Cold pieces of steel 
should not be put into hot oil because the sudden ex- 
pansion would be liable to crack the article. 

When I commenced this work I intended to have 
a colored tempering chart in it but gave it up be- 
cause I found it to be impossible to get the correct 
tints produced on paper, so will give a written de- 
scription of temper colors and the number of degrees 
of heat necessary to produce each color, and the 
proper colors for all kinds of tools. The following 
is a correct table of temper colors : 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 



COLOR TEMPERING CHART. 

Color 



Light Straw 

Full Straw 

Very Dark Straw 

Light Purple 

Dark Purple 

Blue 

Pale Blue or Green 



430 degrees. 

460 

490 

530 

550 

610 

630 



Lathe and planer tools for brass, draw no color 
at all; for cast iron, very light straw; machine 
steel, steel castings, tool steel and wrought iron ma- 
chine tools should be drawn to a medium straw color; 
mill picks, scribers and scrapers, draw no color at all ; 
just heat the tool to about 400 degrees so as to re- 
lieve strains, but not hot enough to draw the slight- 
est color ; taps, very light straw ; dies, dark straw ; 
reamers, full straw; twist drills, full straw; milling 
cutters, from a light to a very dark straw; slotter 
tools, purple or blue; knurling tools, purple ; shear 
knives, from a dark straw to blue ; cold chisels, blue ; 
screw-drivers, let the blue run clear out; wood work 
tools, straw color ; granite tools, light straw ; marble 
tools, straw ; limestone tools, purple ; sandstone 
tools, blue ; clay picks, blue ; hammers and sledges, 
from a straw to a purple. 

Remember that colors do not indicate how hard a 
tool is, only under the right kind of circumstances. 
Colors simply indicate the amount of heat there is in 
the steel, nothing more or less. We can draw any 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKEfi. 61 

color on a soft piece of iron or even on a piece of tin. 
In drawing colors there are several things that must 
be taken into consideration — the quality of the steel, 
the nature and temperature of the bath, and the heat 
the steel was hardened at. 

When you harden a piece of steel be sure you get it 
hard so that a good, fine file will not take hold of it 
at all, and be careful not to heat steel any hotter than 
is necessary to produce this hardness. The better 
the article is polished the better the colors will show. 
Always leave tools as hard as they will stand. To 
make a tool extra tough draw the color a second 
time. After the color is drawn on a tool it should be 
cooled off enough to keep it from becoming softer. 
If articles are left in water very long after tempering 
the color will fade, and will disappear entirely if left 
in water a few hours. If you want color to remain 
on the article dip it in oil just long enough to cool it. 
For tools that must be very hard, draw no color ; heat 
them slowly to about 400 degrees to relieve strains, 
but not hot enough to draw any color, and allow it to 
cool in the air. If the color should start dip it into 
water or oil a few seconds. In this way you will 
leave the tool just as hard and a great deal tougher 
than it was when first hardened. Steel is a bad con- 
ductor of heat, and when a piece is dipped into a bath 
the surface cools and contracts first; the interior 
cools slower and as it contracts the tendency is to 
pull away from the outside and enormous strains are 
developed; but when they are evenly distributed the 



62 THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 

steel is strong enough to resist them, but if there is 
more strain in one portion than another the steel is 
liable to crack. Tools with sharp corners in them 
will be far more liable to crack than they would if 
the corners were rounding, for square corners always 
invite strains. If you have many pieces to temper lay 
them on a hot piece of iron; for taps, reamers, drills, 
etc., heat a large nut or something of the sort, then 
pass the tool back and forth through the hole in the 
hot iron ; turn it over often and watch the color 
closely. In drawing the temper on milling cutters 
and all articles having a large hole in the center, 
heat a round bar to a light red and put the article on 
the hot bar ; this will draw the center the most and is 
the best way of drawing the temper when hot oil 
cannot be had. 

Remember that all hardening baths should be 
kept in a clean barrel or tank, and should be kept 
covered when not in use to keep out dirt and also to 
keep the contents from evaporating. Soap will ruin 
the best bath; oil and grease should be kept away 
from the hardening bath. The object in using salt 
water or other hardening solution is to harden the 
steel at a lower heat than can be done in clear water; 
and by so doing we leave the steel a great deal 
stronger and better in every way than it would be if 
heated higher and hardened in water. 

If we take tw T o pieces of steel from the same bar 
and heat one to a dark red, the other to a light red 
and harden them both in the same bath, the one that 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 63 

was the hotter will be a great deal more brittle than 
the other one ; or, if we take two pieces from the 
same bar and harden one in cold brine and the other 
in warm water or oil, the one that was hardened in 
the brine will be very much harder and more brittle. 
Again, if we take two pieces, one of low carbon steel 
and the other high carbon and heat them both alike 
and quench them in the same bath, the high carbon 
steel will be very much the harder. All these things 
must be considered when drawing temper. 

If you should accidentally let an article get too 
hot lay it out and allow it to cool in the air until 
perfectly cold, then heat again to the proper red and 
harden. Do not lay it out until it cools down to the 
proper hardening heat and then quench, for if you 
do the steel is left in a worse condition than it would 
have been if quenched when first removed from the 
fire. I have often seen men lay overheated steel out 
until it cooled down to the proper heat then harden 
it, but it should never be done. By laying the over- 
heated article out and allowing it to cool in the air 
it will contract slowly ; then when it is reheated and 
hardened at the proper heat the steel will refine and 
will be nearly as good as it ever was. That is if it 
was only slightly overheated; of course, if it was 
heated to a welding heat it will not refine unless it is 
thoroughly hammered; and if badly overheated it 
will never be anywhere near as good as it was before. 
Never let anyone make you believe that any com- 
pound or solution will make burned steel as good as 



64 THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 

it was before it was overheated or burned. Acci- 
dents will happen to the best of us, and it is well to 
know how to make the best of them. 

In heating steel always use a furnace if possible 
and avoid fuel that contains sulphur, for sulphur is 
very injurious to steel. A muffle gas furnace is the 
best method of heating steel ; good, hard coke is the 
best fuel for an ordinary furnace. When heating 
must be done in an ordinary forge with coal for fuel, 
char the coal thoroughly, and for such tools as taps, 
drills, reamers, etc., heat them inside of a piece of 
pipe with one end closed tightly; but this is not 
necessary for cold chisels, lathe tools, etc. In hard- 
ening lathe and planer tools, cold chisels, etc., heat 
them back from one to three inches from the end ; 
dip them so as to leave heat enough in the tool to 
draw the temper on the cutting surface ; avoid any 
sharp dividing line in the heat; have the heat even 
back a little further than the tool is required to be 
hard, and in dipping do not hold the tool at one cer- 
tain depth but move it up and down and sideways in 
the water so as to have no sharp dividing line be- 
tween the hard and soft parts, as it is these sharp di- 
viding lines which cause so many tools to break. 
Just back of the hardened portion the steel is usu- 
ally very soft; it is simply water annealed; this 
leaves steel in the very weakest condition possible, 
then when the tool is used it is very liable to bend or 
break at the dividing line between the hard and soft 
portions. If care is used in heating and hardening 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL, WORKER. 65 

this difficulty will be overcome. Uneven heating is 
more liable to cause an article to spring or crack 
than overheating is; overheating causes steel to be- 
come very brittle, coarse grained and unfit for use. 

I have seen men who thought themselves good 
steel workers, overheat steel and abuse it in every 
way and then cuss the steel or the man who used the 
tool, when the fault wa- their own and they did not 
have sense enough to know it. A man to become a 
successful steel worker should work steel only. He 
should watch his heats carefully, and after harden- 
ing should try the work with a good, sharp, fine file 
so as to be certain the steel is properly hardened and 
to ascertain how low a heat the steel will harden at. 
There is a great difference in steel. Some of the 
high carbon steel will harden at a very low red, 
while the lower carbon steels require a higher heat. 
Steel that will not harden at a good red is not fit for 
cutting tools of any kind. Steel for taps, dies, ream- 
ers, drills, machine tools, etc., should harden at a 
dark red sufficiently to resist a good file. 

Milling cutters, reamers, threading dies and drills 
should be tempered so that a good, fine, sharp file 
will take hold of them slightly. Taps should be 
tempered so a file will catch but very little if any. 
Long arbois, mandrells, reamers, etc., that are liable 
to spring in hardening, should be made of a good 
grade of steel. Do not cut the bar cold. After cut- 
ting, heat the piece to a good red all over ; stand it 
on end and give it two or three good blows on the end 



66 THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 

with a heavy hammer or sledge, depending upon the 
size of the piece ; this will relieve strains caused by- 
rolling or hammering; then thoroughly anneal it. 
The steel should be large enough so that all the de- 
carbonized surface will be removed in machining. 
In all cases the steel should be at least one-eighth of 
an inch larger than the finished tool. 

Arbors and mandrells should be hardened and re- 
heated slightly, but not enough to start the slightest 
color. 

Hardening Anvils. 

To harden anvils or other large articles it is 
necessary to have a large bath, or one that has an 
overflow and inlet of fresh water so as to keep the 
bath from getting too hot. Another very important 
point is to get a nice, even heat and keep it moving 
in the bath until nearly cold, unless you can arrange 
so as to have a stream running on the face of the 
anvil. If a piece of red hot steel is plunged into a 
bath and held still, steam will form around it and 
keep it from hardening properly. This is a very im- 
portant point, especially when large pieces are to be 
hardened. Articles that are liable to spring in 
hardening should be moved up and down in the bath 
but should not be moved sideways. 

Hardening and, Tempering Hammers. 

Hammers and sledges should be heated evenly all 
over, but only harden the faces ; leave heat enough 
in the middle to draw the temper in both ends. 



THE *CIEXTLFIU STEEL WORKER. 67 

Hammers and sledges should be tempered so that a 
good file will take hold on the face. A hammer or 
s edge that you cannot file will be found to be too 
hard. It is far better to have ~a hammer too soft 
than too hard. 

Before drawing the temper on any article have the 
surface polished nicely. If the surface is poorly pol- 
ished the colors will not show nearly so well as on a 
surface that is well polished. If the polish is uneven 
the colors will not be uniform. The part that is 
poorly polished will show a darker color than the 
part that was well polished. 

Tempering in Hot Oil. 

Drawing the temper in hot oil is the best way 
ever invented, and is generally used in connection 
with a gas furnace. Articles can be tempered to any 
degree to an absolute certainty in this way. Melted 
tallow is generally used for this purpose for it is 
capable of taking very high temperature, and can be 
kept at any temperature required for drawing temper 
by regulating the gas. The temperature of the oil 
can be determined by a thermometer partly im- 
mersed in the bath so that the bulb will be on a level 
with the work ; in this way the exact heat required 
can be obtained which eliminates the element of 
guess-work from the process providing the work has 
been hardened uniformly. 

If you wish to draw an article to a straw color, 
adjust the heat of the bath to 460 degrees F. and dip 



68 THE SCIENTIFIC STP^EL, WORKER. 

the articles to be tempered in the hot tallow and keep 
them there long enough to become evenly heated 
clear through ; that is all that is necessary. It will 
do no harm to leave the artices in the bath longer. 
The temper cannot get below a straw color as long as 
the bath remains at 460 degrees F. no matter if you 
should leave them in all day. For an article one- 
fourth of an inch thick, six minutes will be long 
enough; three-eighths of an inch, eight minutes; 
one-half inch, ten minutes. The thicker the steel 
the longer it will take for the heat to penetrate it. 
If the steel is not uniformly hardened it cannot be 
evenly tempered by this method or any other. A 
man cannot work steel successfully unless he has his 
mind and eyes on his work. 

I have often seen men put a piece of steel in the 
fire, turn on the blast and go to talking to some one 
and let the steel get to a white heat. Then they 
will say, "well, that is a little too hot, but it is not 
burned." A poor excuse, better than none. If a man 
cannot keep his mind on his work, he should work 
at something besides spoiling steel. Never complain 
about the steel not being good unless you know and 
can prove that it really is poor steel, or not the right 
kind of steel for that purpose. First be sure you are 
right and know what you are talking about, then do 
not let any one bluff you. 

Every man who has had much experience in hard- 
ening steel has seen what is generally called water 
cracks. These cracks are liable to occur when hard- 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 69 

filing articles that have thin edges and heavy bodies. 
Cold chisels sometimes crack in this way. These 
cracks never run straight but are always curved, and 
nearly always on only one side of the article. The 
cause of this sort of crack is the same as all others, 
viz., strains; and strains are either caused by un- 
even heating, uneven hammering or uneven contra- 
tion of the steel in cooling. 

Some tool makers, machinists and foremen are 
in the habit of calling any and all kinds of cracks in 
steel "water cracks." If a tool should break square 
in two three months after it had been hardened they 
would declare it to be a water crack, no matter how 
the fracture appeared, and regardless of how the 
tool had been used. It is useless to argue with such 
men for they imagine they know it all ; but in re- 
ality they are like the dutchman said : " Never knew 
nothing and always will." 

There are a great many wrong theories advanced 
regarding steel and its proper treatment. A large per 
cent of the toolsmiths are old blacksmiths who are not 
able to do heavy work, so they are put on the tool fire. 
These old gentlemen think it is quite an honor to be 
promoted to toolsmith, and soon become imbued with 
the idea that they are expert steel workers. These 
old grandpas are always fuU of whims and all have 
their pet hobby regarding steel. One of them with 
whom I am acquainted claims that steel shouM be 
hardened in ice water. Another tells us that long, 
round articles can be hardened without springing by 



70 THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 

stirring the bath in a circle as fast as possible and 
plunging the hot steel in the centre of the -whirl. 
He says "the water turning around it will keep it 
straight." Another says: "To keep steel from 
springing or cracking, put three or four handfulls of 
soot and one handfull of lime in the bath." What 
ridiculous nonsense. Strains are what causes steel 
to spring and crack. If a piece of steel has a strain 
In it, all the lime and soot in America cannot remove 
it, and stirring the bath in a circle will not help the 
matter in the least. Another expert tells us to dip 
all tools towards the north. 

Never condemn anything unless you have thor- 
oughly tested it and found it worthless. 

Never advance a theory that you cannot prove. 

Never argue about steel with a man who knows 
it all, for it is a useless waste of words. 

Never conceive the idea that you know all about 
steel. 

Never be in too great a hurry when heating steel. 

Never overheat or unevenly heat steel. 

Never use a very cold bath for hardening steel. 

Never become careless when working steel. 

Never forget to keep your mind and eyes on your 
work. 

Never expose steel to heat any longer than neces- 
sary. 

Never forget the instructions given in this little 
book, and you will become a successful steel worker. 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 71 

Case Hardening. 

Case hardening is a subject that has received but 
little attention. It is generally understood that case 
hardening is the process of making the surface of a 
piece of soft steel or iron very hard. Webster gives 
the following definition: "To harden the outer part 
or superficies, as of iron, by converting it into steel, 
while the interior retains the toughness of malleable 
iron." 

It is worth while to remember that the part to 
be case-hardened must be converted into carbon steel 
before it can be hardened. This can be done in vari- 
ous ways. Soft steel or iron will, under favorable 
circumstances and proper treatment, become carbon- 
ized (or converted into carbon steel) one-eighth of 
an inch deep in twenty-four hours' treatment. For 
articles that only require a slight surface hardening 
to prevent the corners from battering easily, as in 
cap screw heads, slot-headed screws, nuts, bolt heads, 
etc., the process is very simple. All that is neces- 
sary is to heat the article to a bright red and 
sprinkle it with pulverized Prussiate of Potash or 
Cyanide of Potash. Return it to the fire a few sec- 
onds, then harden it in cold water or brine. This 
will make the surface hard enough to resist the best 
file, but of course does not harden deep because the 
steel or iron was only exposed to the carbonizing ele- 
ment a few seconds. 

A better way to case-harden with Cyanide of Pot- 
ash is to place the articles in a large ladle and put in 



72 THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 

enough Cyanide to cover them all ; put the ladle in 
the fire and melt the Cyanide and heat to a red ; keep 
it red hot for some time, for the longer the articles 
are kept red hot in the Cyanide the deeper they will 
harden. A large number of pieces can be hardened 
at one time in this way. When they have been in 
the red hot Cyanide long enough take them out and 
plunge them in the bath as montioned before. Re- 
member Cyanide of Potash is rank poison, so be care- 
ful. Do not put any wet article into melted Cyanide ; 
if you do, it will fly in all directions. 

Another way to case-harden is to pack the arti- 
cles in an iron box with granulated raw bone and 
charred leather or charcoal; or bone and small pieces 
of leather may be used with good results. Place 
about one inch of bone and leather, or bone and 
charcoal, as the case may be, in the bottom of the 
box, then put in a layer of the pieces, but do not let 
them touch each other or come within one-half inch 
of each other or within three-fourths of inch of the 
sides of the box ; fill in between the articles with the 
packing material and cover them about three-fourths 
of an inch deep ; then put in another layer and so on 
until the box is filled to within two inches of the top ; 
then fill up with packing material and seal the lid 
tightly with fire clay. It is a good plan to have 
about four small holes drilled in the centre of the 
box lid and run a wire through each hole down be- 
tween the articles to the bottom of the box. The 
wires should be long enough to reach the bottom of 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 73 

the box and project above the lid about two inches. 
Put a little fire clay around each wire where it goes 
through the lid. The wires should be as large as will 
go through the hole easily. The holes should be 
about three-sixteenths of an inch in diameter. When 
this is done, place the box in the furnace and heat 
thoroughly to a good red and let it remain at that heat 
long enough to become heated evenly clear through ; 
then pull out one of the wires ; if it is red hot you will 
know that all the articles in the box are of the same 
heat. If only a thin surface hardening is wanted 
the work will be ready to harden as soon as it is 
brought to a good red; but if you want a deeper 
hardening it is necessary to keep them red hot for 
some time. If the first wire you remove does not 
show red hot, wait a while and draw another and so 
on until the proper heat is reached. When ready to 
harden, remove the box from the furnace, take off the 
lid and dump the contents of the box into a sieve, 
shake out the packing material and plunge the arti- 
cles into the bath as quickly as possible. Do not let 
them go into the bath all in a pile or they will not 
harden properly ; scatter them around as much as 
possible. If the pieces are large they should not be 
dumped into the bath, but should be removed from 
the box one at a time and kept moving in the bath 
until nearly cold. If you wish the articles to be 
strong and hard take them out of the box and let 
them cool in the air ; then heat them again to a red 
and harden the same as tool steel, but draw no tem- 
6 



74 THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 

per. Articles treated in this way will show as fine a 
grain as tool steel ; but if quenched when taken from 
the box they will be coarse grained and will not be 
nearly as strong as they would if allowed to cool in 
the air and then reheated and hardened. 

You have all seen articles which were colored in 
case-hardening. To do this, we must first have the 
articles nicely polished and perfectly clean. If you 
wish to produce colors, do not quench in any harden- 
ing solution ; use clean, soft water. When the work 
is ready to harden, it is necessary to force air 
through the water so that it will bubble. The way I 
do this is to put a piece of small pipe in the bath and 
blow through it, then harden the article in the bub- 
bling water. Work cannot be colored nicely if heated 
in a dirty fire, or exposed to the air or fire while 
heating. Nice colors can only be obtained by heat- 
ing the articles in a muffle furnace, or in an air-tight 
box, or piece of pipe, or in melted Cyanide as de- 
scribed before. Colors can also be had when the 
articles are packed in carbonaceous materials as de- 
scribed before, only use charred bone instead of raw 
bone. Articles will show the colors better if they are 
left in the water only just long enough to harden 
them, then removed while quite warm and cooled in 
oil. If thin or small pieces are to be case-hard- 
ened, and you want them to be strong and not brit- 
tle, harden them in oil instead of water. 

The Harveyizing method of case-hardening is as 
follows : Pack the articles in boxes as described be- 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 75 

fore, only use charred leather or wood charcoal ; do 
not use bone in this method ; keep the work red hot 
for about eight hours, then remove the boxes from the 
furnace; when they are cold remove the work and 
harden the same as tool steel. If you wish to harden 
extra deep, the articles should be packed in the 
boxes and heated twice. Before hardening this will 
carbonize the steel deeper and better than one pack- 
ing. Soft steel case-hardened in this way will be as 
fine grained and as hard as tool steel. I have hard- 
ened milling cutters made of open hearth steel by this 
method, which worked as good as cutters made of 
tool steel. 

If you wish to case-harden part of an article and 
not the balance, copper plate the part you want soft; 
the carbon will not penetrate the copper, or the parts 
you want soft may be covered with fire-clay to pro- 
tect it from becoming carbonized. Another way to 
accomplish the same results is to machine to size only 
the parts you want hard, then pack in a box and car- 
bonize. When cold, machine the part desired soft. 
This will remove the carbonized surface ; then harden 
it; of course, the part that was machined after car- 
bonizing will not harden. 

For extra large pieces, or pieces that require 
an extra depth of hardening, it is best to use coarse 
bone and leather scrap and keep them red hot all 
day, or even two days. If one day's heat is not 
sufficient, let the work cool over night, then remove 



76 THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL. WORKER. 

from the box and pack again in fresh material and 
return to the furnace. 

When you harden large pieces of any kind keep 
them moving in the bath until nearly cold. If you 
do not keep large pieces moving while hardening, the 
results will not be satisfactory because the steam will 
keep the bath from coming in close contact with the 
steel and it will not cool quickly enough to harden 
properly. For case-hardening cultivator shovels and 
plow shears, use yellow Prussiate of Potash. To pre- 
vent plow shears from warping hammer evenly on 
both sides and dip straight in the bath. Do not 
overheat steel ; give the work plenty of time to be- 
come carbonized. Follow these directions closely 
and you will be successful in case-hardening. 

Thermite Welding. 

Thermite is a newly discovered compound which 
will instantly develop heat of 5400 degrees Fahren- 
heit, which is more than sufficient to melt granite. 
All other processes of producing heat are not to be 
compared with thermite. With its enormous heat 
large rails have been welded in a second, and great 
steel shafts have been welded almost instantly. It 
can be macfe to explode with tremendous power, or to 
work almost silently with appalling results. Ther- 
mite is a mixture of aluminum filings and Oxide of 
Iron. It is the discovery of Dr. Hans Goldschmidt. 
Its remarkable powers were recently demonstrated 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 77 

before the Columbia University Chemical Society. 
The discovery was made in an effort to produce pure 
Metallic Chromium, the metal much employed to give 
extra hardness to steel. This metal is not usually 
pure, and contains a considerable quantity of car- 
bon. It had been known that when a mixture of 
aluminum filings and the Oxide of Chromium were 
heated in a furnace, a violent explosion would follow, 
owing to the intensity of the chemical action. Dr. 
Goldschmidt argued that in such cases Metallic Chro- 
mium must be found. After a series of experiments 
the problem was solved. When the aluminum filings 
were thoroughly mixed in a crucible with Oxide of 
Chromium, a teaspoonful of ordinary flashlight pow- 
der and Peroxide of Sodium was placed on the mass. 
This acted as a "primer." A match was applied. 
There was a bright flash, followed by a glow and gen- 
tle flame. When cold, the crucible was broken, and 
at the bottom was found Metallic Chromium at least 
90% pure. Above it, and easily separated, was a 
slag of Aluminum Oxide or artificial corundum. 
Dr. Goldschmidt soon discovered that Manganese 
could be equally well obtained in this way — merely 
substituting Oxide of Manganese for the Oxide of 
Chromium. Next, the chemist substituted Oxide of 
Iron for Oxide of Chromium, and when touched off 
by the flashing primer the slag of the corundum 



78 THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 

spurted out liquid and naming. It was a blinding 
spectacle ; bubbling like water, it ran pure metallic 
iron and sank to the bottom in a dazzling, molten 
mass so intensely brilliant that the chemist was tem- 
porarily blinded Though the contents of the cruci- 
ble flowed out at a temperature of 5,400 degrees 
Fahrenheit, the outside of the crucible could be held 
in the bare hand almost immediately, because the de- 
velopment of the heat was too rapid to affect sur- 
rounding bodies unless kept in contact with the 
molten mass longer than it remains in the crucible. 
Thus thermite was discovered. 

Steel rails are welded by this process in Berlin, 
Munich, Hamburg, Casse, and other German cities. 
It is also a success in welding pipes into continuous 
lengths, miles long if necessary. For pipes only 
the slag (not the molten metal) is allowed in contact 
with the pipe joint. Thermite is also a success for 
welding large shafts. All that is necessary is to 
place the pieces, which are to be welded, in the de- 
sired position, only leave them from three-eighths to 
one inch apart, depending on the size of the shaft. 
A mold is then placed around the shaft and the 
molten metal allowed to flow into the joint. The in- 
tensity of the heat will, in an instant, put a welding 
heat on the ends of the shaft which will unite with 
the thermite metal. When cold it will be found to 
be one solid mass, and equally as strong at the 
weld as in any other part. 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 79 

A Chemical Mixture 

which will cut a hole in a file or other hardened 
steel or iron which cannot be drilled successfully : 

Sulphate of Copper .... 1 oz. 

Alum \ oz 

Pulverized Salt \ teaspooful. 

Nitric Acid 20 drops. 

Vinegar 1 gill. 

To cut a hole in steel with this mixture, first 
make a hole in a cake of beeswax the size you want 
the hole in the steel ; then heat the beeswax a little 
and place it on the steel ; then fill the hole with the 
mixture. If the above mixture is applied to steel, 
which has a polished surface, and washed off quick- 
ly, it will produce a beautiful, frosted appearance. 

How to Re-cut Files by a Chemical Process. 

Dissolve four ounces of common soda in one quart 
of water; make enough of this solution to cover the 
files and boil them in it for half an hour; then take 
out, wash and dry them ; then stand them endways 
in a jar of sufficient depth and fill up the jar with 
rain water and put in four ounces of Sulphuric Acid 
to each quart of rain water. If the files are coarse 
they will need to remain in the solution about twelve 
hours; but for fine files eight hours will be sufficient. 
When you take them out wash them clean and dry 
them quickly and put on a little sweet oil to keep 



80 THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 

them from rusting. Files may be re-cut in this way 
two or three times. The solution may be kept and 
used as long as you see action take place when you 
put the files into it. Keep it tightly covered when 
not in use. 

The object of boiling the files in the soda solution 
is to remove all grease and dirt. The action of the 
acid thins the teeth and leaves a sharp edge. By 
using this method you can get double the amount of 
service. The cost of re-cutting is very small. 

Writing on Metals. 

For writing on iron, steel, brass, copper, etc., use 
the following mixture : 

Muriatic Acid 1 oz . 

Nitric Acid \ oz. 

Mix together. Cover the article you wish to 
write on with beeswax ; when cold write plainly 
what you want in the beeswax with a sharp pointed 
piece of steel ; be sure to get clear down to the 
metal and clean all the wax out of the letters. Then 
apply the solution with a feather ; fill all the letters 
carefully ; let it remain from two to ten minute6, ac- 
cording to the depth of letters desired ; then put on 
some water which will dilute the acid and stop the 
action ; now clean off the beeswax and put on a little 
oil. Either of the acids alone will cut iron or steel, 
but it requires them both to cut brass, copper, nickel 
or silver. Hard soap may be used instead of bees- 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL, WOKKBB. 81 

wax, but the wax is the best. If you wish to write- 
on some article that is rounding, so that the acid will 
not stay in the letters, you can cover the article on 
all sides with wax; then dip it in the so'ution in 
such a way that the acid will cover the letters. This 
mixture will cut a hole in steel or iron which is too 
hard to drill. Paraffine may be used in place of 
beeswax with fully as good results as soap. 

How t<> Build a Furnace,. 

A furnace for heating steel, for hardening and an- 
nealing should be in every shop, for it is impossible 
to get a satisfactory heat in a forge for hardening 
tools. A forge is all right for cold chisels, lathe and 
planer tools, etc., but for taps, dies, reamers, shear 
knives, milling cutters, etc., a furnace should always 
be used. A furnace can be easily and cheaply built 
and will pay for itself in a short time. 

The furnace should be built of fire brick and of 
proper size to suit the class of work which it is to 
be used for, and should be arched over the top and 
have an iron door about twenty-four inches wide by 
twelve or fourteen inches high. The door should be 
lined with fire brick, and should have a one and one- 
half inch hole in the center so that the operator can 
see the work. The door should be nicely balanced 
by means of a lever and weight which should be 
above the door and of sufficient height to be out of 
the way. There should be a small rod attached to* 
the lever so that the operator can open the door by 



"82 THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 

pulling the rod. If the door is properly balanced it 
will remain in any position, and will be easily opened 
•or closed. The fire bed is an important feature in 
this kind of a furnace. Any ordinary grate bars 
with one-half inch openings will do. The bars 
should be firmly set so as to make a solid, level bed. 
The fire bed should be about two feet from the floor; 
the fore plate should be five or six inches above the 
: grate bars. Another important feature is the stack, 
which should be of sufficient size and height to give 
the furnace a good draft, and should have a good 
damper so it can be closed perfectly tight. 

Hard coke is the only satisfactory fuel for this 
kind of a furnace. Kindle the fire with wood, then 
fill the furnace up level with the fore plate with 
small pieces of coke. Leave the damper open until 
the furnace gets to the proper heat then close it and 
put in the work. 

This kind of a furnace does not require any blast. 
If you wish to use it for heating or forging purposes 
leave the damper open. A welding heat can be ob- 
tained if desired, but for hardening and annealing 
purposes be careful not to get the furnace too hot, 
and keep the damper closed, or nearly so, while the 
steel is heating. 

For heating small articles, lay them on a piece of 
iron about one-fourth of an inch thick, and of suffi- 
cient size to hold the pieces; then place them in the 
furnace on the plate; for heating large shear knives, 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 83 

etc., a heavier plate is necessary. Turn the steel 
over while heating so as to get a perfectly even heat. 
This kind of a furnace is not as good as a muffle 
gas furnace, but is a great deal cheaper and will 
answer the purpose very well. The entire expense of 
making such a furnace would not exceed $50. I 
have used furnaces of this description on all classes 
of work with good results. 

Brazing. 

Brazing consists of uniting two pieces of metal 
wi^h brass, copper, nickel or silver. Brass filings, 
soft sheet brass or spelter is what is generally used. 
To braze two pieces together we must first see that 
there is no dirt or grease on the articles, and that the 
surface, where the brazing is to be done, is bright 
and free from rust. We must also fix up some means 
of holding them together just as they are to be after 
they are finished. Now, when this is done, heat the 
joint red hot; put on a little powdered borax and 
then the brass filings which will quickly melt and 
run into the joint and all around it; turn the article 
over often to keep the brass from running off; as 
soon as you see the brass has melted and run into the 
joint, remove it from the heat and cool in the air or 
.water. 

A band saw is an article that often break-* and 
can easily be brazed so it will be as strong as ever. 
I have brazed hundreds of them and never had one 
break where it had been brazed. To braze a band 



84 THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL, WORKER. 

saw, first file or grind the ends to a thin point; of 
course, only grind or file on the flat sides ; thin both 
ends down to knife edge; taper them back about one 
inch ; lap them together as far as you have tapered 
them ; clamp the saw so as to hold it in line and 
right where you want it; have your clamp about ore 
inch from the joint on each side ; now take a thin 
piece of sheet brass the width of the saw and about 
one-fourth of an inch longer than the splice is to be ; 
put the piece of brass between the lapped ends of the 
saw; put a little powdered borax on top of the saw; 
have a pair of tongs with heavy bits, about one inch 
square; heat them nearly to a welding heat, then 
grasp the saw at the splice with the hot tongs; hold 
it tightly until the brass melts, then remove the 
tongs carefully and allow the saw to cool; then file 
off the rough spots and smooth it up and your saw is 
ready to run again. 

It is any easy matter to braze steel or wrought 
iron, but cast iron is very difficult to braze and cannot 
be done by the ordinary way of brazing. To braze 
cast iron we must first use a coating over the surface 
to be joined. The best coating is the Oxide of Cop- 
per made into the constituency of varnish and ap- 
plied to the surface with a brush. Mix the Oxide of 
Copper with some suitable liquid to make the coat- 
ing. The effect of this coating is to reduce the car- 
bon on the surface of the cast iron to be brazed so 
that it passes somewhat into the nature of steel. 
Without this treatment the surface of cast iron, when 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 85 

heated, become slippery and will not braze. This re- 
duction of carbon will penetrate for some distance 
into the cast iron. Heat in a muffle gas furnace or 
with a brazing torch ; use brass filings, which will 
melt and run into the joint, at about 1,800 degrees 
F., and it will make a solid job fully as strong as 
solid cast iron. 

Blow holes in castings can be filled in this way. 
First clean the hole and then coat it all over with the 
Oxide Varnish ; heat it up to the brazing tempera- 
ture and fill the hole full of melted cast iron ; use a 
little spelter or brass filings; this will make the cast- 
ing just as solid as it would have been if it had never 
had any blow hole. Brackets or any kind of pro- 
jection can be brazed onto castings in this way. 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 



DIAMETER AND CIRCUMFERENCE OF CIRCLES 



EXPLANATION OF THE FOLLOWING TABLES. 

To find the circumference of a circle when the di- 
ameter is given, we multiply the dameter by 3.1416. 
A shorter method is to multiply the diameter by 
3 1-7; or multiply the diameter by 22 and divide by 
7. The following tables commence at one inch and 
advance by one-eighth of an inch up to twenty feet. 
In making rings or bands of any size of iron or steel, 
we must add the thickness of the iron to the diame- 
ter and get the circumference on that size. 

Example : If you wish to make a ring 40 inches 
in diameter out of 2^ inch square iron, to the diame- 
ter, 40 inches, add the thickness of the iron, 2^ 
inches, which equals 42^ inches, or 3 ft. 6^ inches. 
Refer to the tables for the circumference of a 3 ft. 6£ 
inch circle; you will find it to be 11 ft. and f inches. 
Cut off your iron 11 ft. f inches long, scarf the ends, 
bend and weld it and you will have a ring 40 inches 
in diameter inside measure. 

The thicker the iron the more it will take up in 
bending. It will take 19 ft. If inches of iron, one 
inch thick, to make a ring 6 ft. in diameter; and 
will take 19 ft. lOf inches of iron four inches thick,. 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 87 

to make a ring 6 ft. in diameter. A circle 7 ft. in 
diameter will be 22 ft. in circumference. 

When making rings always add the thickness of 
the iron to the inside diameter and refer to the tables 
for circumference. The tables will be found correct 
and useful to any man who has rings or bands to 
make. 



88 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 







TABLE 


NO. 1.- 


1 in. to 


L ft. 4% 


in. 






-DIAM. 


CIR. 


DIAM. 


CIR. 


DIAM. 


CIR. 


DIAM. 


CIR. 


IN. 


FT. 


IN. 


IN. 


FT. IN. 


FT. IN. 


FT. IN. 


FT. IN. 


FT. IN. 


1 


0. 


31 


5 


1 3| 


0. 9 


2. 44 


1 


1 


1 3. 4J 


H 


0. 


31 


51 


1 4 


o. n 


2. 4f 


1 


1-1 


3. 54 


H 


0. 


31 


51 


1. H 


0. 94 


2. 5 


1 


14 


3- 5| 


if 


0. 


H 


5| 


1 H 


0. 9f 


2. 5| 


1 


if 


3. 6 


H 


0. 


H 


51' 


i. H 


o. n 


2. 5J 


1 


i* 


i 3. 6f 


If 


0. 


5 


H 


1. 5| 


0. Of 


2. 64 


1 


if 


3. 6j 


If 


0. 


6* 


5f 


1. 6 


0. 9f 


2. 6f 


1 


if 


3. n 


11 


0. 


51 


51 


1. 6| 


o. n 


2. 7 


1 


11 


3- Tf 


2 


0. 


H 


6 


1. 6J 


0.10 


2. 7| 


1 


2 


3. 8 


21 


0. 


if 


61 


1. 7^ 


10i 


2. 7| 


1 


H 


3. 8| 


H 


0. 


7 


H 


1 H 


O.lOi 


2. 8i 


1 


n 


3. 8| 


H 


0. 


n 


6| 


1 8 


0.10| 


2. 8^ 


1 


2| 


3. n 


U 


0. 


n 


61 


1. 8| 


O.lOi 


2. 9 


1 


n 


3. n 


2f 


0. 


H 


6| 


1. 8| 


0.10| 


2. 9f 


1 


2* 


3. 91 


2f 


0. 


H 


6f 


l. h 


O.lOf 


2. 9f 


1 


2i 


3.10| 


21 


0. 


9 


61 


l. H 


o.ioi 


a.ioj 


1 


21 


3.10f 


3 


0. 


n 


7 


1.10 


0.11 


2.101 


1 


3 


3.11-1 


31 


0. 


n 


H 


l.lOf 


o.ni 


2.101 


1 


31 


3. Hi 


8i 


0. 


10J 


n 


l.lOf 


0.114 


2ilf 


1 


34 


3111 


31 


0. 


10£ 


n 


1.111 


O.llf 


2.11| 


1 


3f 


4. 04 


3* 


0. 


11 


n 


1.111 


oni 


3. Oi 


1 


»* 


4. Of 


3| 


0. 


111 


n 


1 111 


O.llf 


3. 0| 


1 


3f 


4. 1 


3f 


0. 


Hi 


7| 


2. Of 


O.llf 


3. 01 


1 


3f 


4 If 


31 


1. 


01 


n 


2. 0| 


0.11J 


3- 14 


1 


31 


4. 11 


4 


1. 


01 


8 


2- 11 


1. 


3. If 


1 


4 


4. 24 


H 


1. 


01 


81 


2. 1* 


1. 0^ 


3. 2 


1 


H 


4. 2f 


H 


1. 


If 


81 


2. 11 


i 04 


3. 2i 


1 


44 


4. 3 


*t 


1. 


If 


81 


2. 2j 


1. Of 


3. 21 


1 


If 


4. 8| 


H 


1. 


21 


81 


2. 2| 


1- 0i 


3. 3i 


1 


H 


4. 3| 


H 


1. 


21 


8| 


2. 3 


1. Of 


3. 3f 


1 


If 


4- 4f 


4f 


1. 


21 


8f 


2. 3£ 


1. 0| 


3. 4 


1 


If 


4. 4i 


41 


1. 


31 


81 


2. 8| 


1. OJ 


3. 4f 


1 


11 


4. 5 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL, WORKER. 



TABLE NO. 2.— 1 ft. 5 in. to 2 ft. 8% in. 



CIR. DIAM. ; CIR. DIAM. j CIR. DIAM. 

FT. IN. FT. IN. I FT. IN. FT. IN. j FT. IN. FT. IN. 



H 
H 

7 

n 
n 

H 



9 

H 

n 

n 
n 
n 
n 



H 

H 

6f 

n 
n 

8 



5. 8f 



H 



1| 

H 
if 
if 



6. 64 

6. 6J 

6. 7| 

6. 8i 

6. 84 

6. Hi 

6. 9i 



5 

H 

H 

5f 

5* 



4. 84 
4. 8J 
4. 9J 
4. 9| 
4.10| 
4.104 
4.1of 
4.11| 



10 
104 

lOf 

104 

10| 
lOf 
104 



5. 9^ 
5. 94 
5. 9 J 
5.101 
5.10| 
5.11 
5.114 
5. 11J 



2.2 

2. 24 
2.2J 

2.2| 
2.24 
2.2| 
2.2f 

2.2J 



6. Q{ 
6.10 
6 . 104 
6.10J 
6. Hi 
6.1M 



«i 

64 
6| 
6f 



4. 11| 

5. 

5. Of 

5. 0J 

5- li 

5. If 

5. 2 

5. 2| 



11 

14 

HI 
HI 

14 

n| 
ill 
11* 



04 

of 
1 

if 
if 



6. 2J 
6. 2f 
6. 3 



2.3 

2. 34 
2.31 
2.3| 

2.34 
2.3f 
2.3f 
2.34 



7. Of 
7. U 
7 
7 
7 

7. 2| 
7. 2| 
7. Si 



H 

2 
9M 



7a 
H 

7| 

7* 
7J 



24 
34 
8* 
4 

4f 
&4 





04 

0i 
Of 

o* 

Of 
Of 

of 



6. 


3# 


6. 


3f 


6. 


H 


6. 


H 


6. 


±i 


6. 


5# 


6. 


H 


6 


H 



2 4 
8.4J 

2.44 
2.4| 
2.44. 
2.4| 
2.4f 
2.4| 



4f 

64 
«* 



s 

S-l 



84 



84 



90 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 



TABLE NO. 3.-2 ft. 9 in. to 4 ft. 0% in. 



DIAM. 
FT. IN. 



CIR. 
FT. IN. 



DIAM. 
FT. IN. 



9 

n 



2 
2 
2 

2. 9f 
2. 9| 
2. 9| 
2. 9f 
2. 9J 



8. 7| 
8. 8 
8. 8| 
8. 81 
8. 9^ 
8. 9| 
8. 10 
8.10| 



3.1 
3.LJ 

31i 

3. If 

3.1i 
3. If 
3. If 
3.1J 



CIR. 
FT. IN. 



9. 8i 

9. 8| 

9. 9 

9. 9| 

9. 9f 

9.104 

9.101 



DIAM. 
FT. IN. 



CIR. 
FT. IN. 



3.5f 
3.5f 
3.5J 



10. 8f 
10. 9| 
10. 9! 
10. 9J 
lO.lOf 
lO.lOf 

10.14 
io. Hi 



DIAM. 
FT. IN. 



9* 

9i 
9| 
9* 

9| 
9f 
9J 



CIR. 
FT. IN. 



11. 9| 

11. 9f 

n.ioi 

11.10! 
ll.iof 
11. Hi 
ll.llf 

12. 01 



2.10 

2.101 

2 . 10i 

2.10| 

2.10! 

2.10| 

2.10f 

2.101 



8.10| 
8.111 
8.1H 
9. 
9. Of 
9. Of 
9. 11 
9. 11 



3.2 

3.2! 
3.2i 

3.2f 
3.21 
3.2f 
3.2f 
3.21 



9.1l| 
9.11f 

10. 0! 
10. 01 
10. 01 

io. if 

10. If 

10. 21 



3.6 

3.6! 

3.6! 

3.6f 

3.6! 

3.6| 

3.6f 

3.61 



10 


11* 


11. 


o« 


11 


Of 


11 


H 


11 


i* 


11 


n 


11 


H 


11 


H 



3.10 

3.10! 

3.10! 

3.10f 

3.10! 

3.10| 

3.10f 

3.101 



12. 0! 

12. 01 

12. li 

12. If 

12. 2 

12. 2| 

12. 21 

12. 3! 



2.11 

2.111 

2. Hi 

2.H| 

2.11! 

2.11J 

2.11f 

2.111 



9. 11 

9. 2f 

9. 2f 

9. 31 

9. 3! 

9. 31 

9. 4| 

9- H 



3.3 

33! 
3.3! 
33| 
33! 
3.3| 
3.3f 
331 



10. 2! | 

10. 21 

10. 3! 

10. 3| 

10. 4 

io. i! 

10. 41 



11 



H 



3.7 

3.7! 
3.7! 

3.7f 
37! 
3.7f 
3.7| 

3.71 



11 3 

11. 3! 

11. 31 

11. 4! 

ii H 



li 
ii 



5 

H 



11. 5f 



3.11 
311! 
3 11! 
3. 11| 
3.11! 
3 llf 
8.11J 
3.111 



12. 3| 

12. 4 

12. 4f 

12. 4f 

12. 5! 

12. 5| 

12. 6 

12. 6| 



3. 

3. 0! 

3. 0! 

3. Of 

3. 0! 

3. Of 

3. Of 

3. 01 



9. 5 
9. 5! 
9. 5| 
9. 6! 
9. 6f 
9. 7 
9. 7f 
9. 71 



3 4 

3.4! 

3.4! 

3.4f 

3.4! 

3.4f 

3.4f 

3.41 



10. 


°7? 


10. 


6 


10. 


6f 


10. 


61 


i n 


7 l 




u 


10. 


H 


10. 


8 


10. 


8| 



3.8 

3.8! 
3.8! 
3.8f 
3.8! 
3.8f 
3.8f 
3.81 



11. 6! 
11. 6f 
11. 7 



11 
11 
11 
11 
11. 81 



H 

81 
8! 



4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4. Of 

4. 01 





0! 
0! 
of 
0! 
o# 



12. 6f 

12. 71 
12. 7! 
12. 71 
12. 8f 
12. 8f 
12. 9! 
12. 9! 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 



1)1 



TABLE NO. 4.-4 ft. 1 in to 5 ft i% in. 



DIAM. 
FT. IN. 

1 

i* 

n 



4. 1* 

4. If 
4. If 
4. 1* 



CIR. 


FT. 


IN. 


12 


9* 


12 


lOf 


12 


Hf 


12 


11* 


11 


11* 


12 


in 


13 


o* 


13 


Of 



DIAM. 
FT. IN. 



4 
4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4.5f 

4.5* 



H 



H 

H 
H 



CIR. 


FT. 


IN. 


13 


10* 


13 


10* 


13 


in 


13 


u* 


14 





14 


04 


14. 


o* 


14. 


H 



DIAM. 
FT. IN. 

4. 9 
4. 9* 
4. 9* 
4. 9f 
4. 9* 
4. 9| 
4. 9f 
4. 91 



CIR. 

FT. IN. 



14.11 

14. 11^ 

14 ll| 

15. 0* 

15 

15 

15 

15 



0j 

1 

1| 
1* 



DIAM. 

FT. IN, 



5.1 

5.1* 

5.1J 

5. If 

5.1* 
5.1| 
5.11 
5.11 



4. 2 

4. 2* 

4. 2* 

4. 2| 

4. 2-| 

4- 2| 

4. 2f 

4. n 



13. 


1 


13. 


H 


18. 


i* 


13. 


H 


13. 


n 


13. 


3 


13. 


H 


13. 


3| 



4.6 
4.6* 
4 6* 
4 6| 
4.6* 
4.6f 
4.6f 
4.61 



14. 


1* 


14. 


2 


14. 


2* 


14. 


2* 


14. 


3* 


14. 


3* 


14. 


4 


14. 


4| 



4.10 
4.10* 

4.10* 
4.10| 
4.10* 
4.10| 
4.10| 
4.10* 



15. 2* 
15. 2| 
15. 3 
15. 3| 
15. 3f 
15. 4* 
15. 4* 
15. 4* 



5.2 

5.2* 
5.2* 
5.2| 
5.2* 
5.24 
5.2f 
5.21 



3 



4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4. 34 

4. 3f 

4. 3* 



H 
H 
3* 



13. 4* 
13. 44 
13. 5 
13. 5| 
13. 5f 
13. 6* 
13. 6* 
13. 7 



4.7 

4.7* 
4.7* 
4.74 
4.7* 
4.74 
4.7| 
4.7* 



14. 


4f 


14. 


H 


14. 


H 


14. 


51 


14. 


6* 


14. 


6f 


14. 


n 


14. 


H 



4.11 
4.11* 

4 11* 

4.H4 
411* 
4.114 
4.114 
411* 



15. 54 
15. 54 
15. 6* 
15. 6* 
15. 6* 
15. 7* 
15. 74 
15. 8* 



5.3 

5.3* 

5.3* 

5.34 

5.3* 

5.34 

5.34 

5.3* 



4 

4* 
4* 

44 
4* 
44 
44 
4* 



13. 74 

13. 7| 

13. 8* 

13. 8* 

13. 8* 

13. 9* 

13. 94 
13.10* 



8* 
8* 



84 
84 



14 


n 


14 


8* 


14 


8f 


14 


9* 


14 


9* 


14 


9* 


14. 


10* 


14. 


104 



5. 



04 
04 

Of 

04 

04 



5. Of 
5. 0J 



15 


8* 


15 


8* 


15 


9* 


15 


94 


15 


10 


15 


104 


15 


10* 


15 


11* 



4 

44 

H 
*i 

H 

H 



5.4f 
5.41 



92 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 



TABLE NO 5. 5 ft. 5 in. to 6 ft. 8% in. 



DIAM. 


CIR. 


DIAM. 


CIR. 


DIAM. 


CIR. 


DIAM. 


CIR. 


FT. IN. 


FT. 


IN. 


FT. IN. 


FT. 


IN. 


FT. IN. 


FT. IN. 


FT. IN. 


FT. IN. 


5 5 


17. 


Oi 


5 9 


18 


• of 


6 1 


19. If 


6 5 


20 11 


5.51 


17 


Of 


5. 91 


18 


• H 


6 1| 


19 


11 


6.51 


20. 21 


5.51 


17 


1 


5 91 


18 


■ U 


e H 


19 


21 


6 51 


20 2| 


5.5f 


17 


If 


5 9| 


18 


• n 


6 If 


19 


H 


6.5| 


20 3 


5 H 


17. 


If 


5. 9J 


18 


■ 2| 


6 li 


19 


n 


6 54 


20. 34 


5 5f 


17 


2* 


5 9| 


18 


• 2f 


6 If 


19 


n 


6 5f 


20 3| 


5.5f 


17. 


2* 


5. 9| 


18 


• H 


6. If 


19 


H 


6 51 


20. 41 


5.5J 


17. 


H 


5 9J 


18 


. 3J 


6.1J 


19 


4 


6 51 


20 4| 


5 6 


17. 


8| 


5.10 


18 


H 


6 2 


19 


44 


6 6 


20 5 


5.61 


17 


H 


5.101 


18 


H 


6 21 


19 


41 


6.61 


20. 5f 


5.61 


17. 


H 


5.101 


18 


H 


6.21 


19 


H 


6.61 


20. 51 


6.6f 


17. 


H 


6.10| 


18 


5 


6 2f 


19 


5| 


6.61 


20. 61 


5.6| 


17. 


*l 


6.10* 


18 


H 


6.24 


19 


6 


6 64 


20. 6| 


5 6f 


17. 


H 


5.10| 


18 


H 


6.2f 


19 


<*! 


6.6f 


20. 7 


5.6| 


17 


H 


5 10| 


18 


6i 


6.2f 


19 


61 


6.61 


20. 7| 


5.6J 


17 


6 


5. 101 


18 


6| 


6.2| 


19 


n 


6.61 


20 7f 


5.7 


17. 


6i 


5.11 


18 


7 


6.3 | 19 


n 


6.7 


20. 81 


5.71 


17. 


«* 


5.14 


18 


H 


6.31 i 19 


8 


6 71 


20. 8i 


5.7J 


17. 


H 


5.111 


18 


n 


6 31 i 19 


8| 


6.71 


20 9 


5.7| 


17 


7| 


5.11# 


18 


8i 


6 .3| 


19 


81 


6.7| 


20. 9f 


6.7* 


17. 


8 


5. Hi 


18 


8S 


6.34 


19 


H 


6 74 


20. 9f 


fi. 7| 


17. 


8| 


5. ll| 


18 


9 


6.3| 


19 


9| 


6.7| 


20 . 101 


5.7| 


17. 


8| 


5.111 


18 


9| 


6.3f 


19 


10 


6 71 


20 104 


5.7J 


17 


9i 


5- H| 


18 


9f 


6.3J 


19 


lOf 


6.71 


20.1. » 


5.8 


17. 


9| 


6. 


18 


10^ 


6.4 


19 101 


6 8 


20. U| 


5.81 


17 


10 


6. 01 


18 


1<H 


6.41 


19.111 


6 81 


20.111 


f>.81 


17. 


10| 


6. 01 


18 


11 


641 


19 


111 


6.81 


21. 01 


5.8| 


17 


lOf 


6. Of 


18 


us 


6.4f 


19 


11J 


6.8| 


21. 04 


5 8| 


17 


m 


6. 04 


18 


llf 


644 


20 


Of 


6.84 


n. 01 


5.8| 


17. 


H* 


6. 0| 


19 


n 


6.4| 


20 


oi 


6.8| 


21 11 


5 8j 


18 





6. Of 


19 


Oi 


6 4f 


20 


li 


6.81 


21. if 


■5. 8 J 


18. 


OS 


6 0i 


19 


0| 


6.41 


20 


li 


6 81 


21. 2 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 



98" 



TABLE NO. 6.-6 ft. 9 in to 8 ft. 8% in. 



CIR. 
FT, IN. 



2i. n 

21 
21 
21 
21 
21 
21 
21 



n 

H 

4 

H 



DIAM. 


CIR. 


FT. IN. 


FT. IN. 


7 1 


22. 3 


1M 


22. 3f 


7.1i 


22. 3* 


7.11 


22. 4^ 


7.H 


22. 4f 


7.1| 


22 5 


7.14 


22. 5| 


7.1$ 


22. 5| 



DIAM. 
FT. IN 



7.5 

7-.5-J 

7.5| 
7.5* 
7.5| 
7.5f 
7.5* 



CIR. 


FT. 


IN. 


23. 


H 


23. 


4 


23. 


H 


23. 


H 


23. 


H 


23. 


5^ 


23. 


6 


23. 


6| 



DIAM. 
FT. IN. 



9 

n 

n 

7. 9f 



21 . 5* 

21 . 6 

21 . 6| 

21 . 6} 

21. 7* 

21 . 7| 

21 . 8 

21. 8f 



7.2 
7.2* 



7 2* 
7 2f 
7.2f 

7.2* 



22 . 


6* 


22 . 


°* 


22 . 


7 


22. 


H 


22 . 


H 


22. 


Si 


22. 


8* 


22. 


81 



7.6 

7.6* 

7.6J 

7.6f 

7.6-J 

7.6| 

7.6# 



23. 


°f 


23. 


n 


23. 


7* 


23. 


n 


23. 


n 


23. 


8f 


23. 


9* 


23. 


9* 



7.10 

7.10* 

7.10± 

7.10| 

7.10* 

7.10f 

7l.0f 

7.10* 



21. 8f 
21. 94 
21. 9* 
21. 9* 
21.10| 
21.10f 

21.11* 
21.11| 



7.3 

7.3* 
7.3^ 
7.8| 
7.3* 

7.3f 
7.3f 
7.3* 



22 


n 


22 


9f 


22 


10* 


22 


10* 


22 


10* 


22 


Hi 


22 


111 


23 






7.7 
7.7* 
7 .71 
7 .7| 

7.7* 
7 .7| 

7.7f 

7.7* 



23. 9* 
23.10| 
23.10f 
23 11 
23.11* 
23.1l| 

24. 0i 
24. Of 



7.11 

711* 

7.11| 

7. 11| 

711* 

7.11| 

7.11| 

7.11* 



22. 





22. 


<H 


22. 


Of 


22. 


1 


22. 


1* 


22. 


1* 


22. 


n 


22. 


H 



7.4 

7.4* 
7.4* 
7.4| 
7.4* 
7 .4| 
7.4| 
7.4* 



23. 0* 

23. 0* 

23. 1* 

23. If 

23. 2 

23. 2| 

23. 2f 

23. 3* 



7.8 

7.8* 

7.8* 

7 .8| 

7.8* 
7.8£ 
7.8f 
7.84 



24. 


1 


24. 


If 


24. 


If 


24. 


2i 


24. 


2| 


24. 


3 


24. 


H 


24. 


H 



8. 



0* 
0i 



8. 
8. 
8. 



94 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL. WORKER. 



TABLE NO. 7.-8 ft. L in. to 9 ft. 4% in. 



DIAM. 


CIR. 


DIAM. 


! CIR. 


DIAM. 


CIR. 


DIAM. 


: cir. 


FT. IN. 


FT. 


IN. 


FT. IN. 


FT. 


IN. 


FT. IN. 


FT. 


IN. 


FT. IN. 


FT. IN. 


8. 1 


25. 


4f 


8.5 


26. 


H 


8. 9 


27. 


53 


9.1 


28. 6f 


8. h 


25. 


H 


8.51 


26. 


H 


8 


91 


27. 


H 


914 


28. 6| 


8. li 


25. 


H 


8.5f 


26. 


6 


8 


n 


27. 


n 


9U 


28. 7f 


8. If 


25. 


H 


8 .5| 


26. 


H 


8 


9| 


27. 


7 


9.1f 


28. 7| 


8. H 


25. 


6i 


8.5-i 


26. 


n 


S 


n 


27. 


n 


914 


28. 8 


8. If 


25. 


6S 


8 .5| 


26. 


n 


8 


n 


27. 


n 


9. If 


28. 8| 


8. If 


25. 


1 


8.5f 


26. 


n 


8 


n 


27. 


H 


9. If 


28. 8f 


8. 1J 


25. 


H 


8.5J 


26. 


8 


8 


n 


27. 


8f 


914 


28. 91 


8. 2 


25. 


n 


8.6 


26. 


8| 


8 


10 


27. 


9 


9.2 


28. 9| 


8. 21 


25. 


81' 


•8 


61 


26. 


H 


8 


101 


27. 


9| 


9.21 


28.10 


8. 2i 


25. 


8f 


8 


«i 


26. 


n 


8 


10i 


27. 


9f 


9.2f 


28.10| 


8. 2| 


25. 


9 


8 


6| 


26. 


9| 


8 


lOf 


27. 


104 


9.2f 


28 . lOf 


8. 2i 


25. 


H 


8 


H 


26. 


10 


8 


10i 


27. 


10| 


9.24 


28.111 


8- 2| 


25. 


9| 


8 


H 


26. 


10| 


8 


lOf 


27. 


11 


9.2| 


28.111 


8. 2f 


25. 


m 


8 


6f 


26. 


lOf 


8 


lOf 


27. 


llf 


9.2f 


28. llf 


8. 2J 


25. 


lOf 


8 


°4 


26. 


14 


8 


lOj 


27. 


llf 


924 


29. Of 


8. 3 


25. 


ii 


8 


7 


26. 


iH 


8 


11 


28. 


04 


9.3 


29. Of 


8. 3| 


25. 


nf 


8 


Xi 


27. 





8 


Hi 


28. 


04 


931 


29. 11 


8. 3f 


25. 


nf 


8 


n 


27. 


01 


8 


Hi 


28. 


04 


9.3^ 


29. 11 


8. 3| 


26. 


Oi 


8 


n 


27. 


Of 


8 


n« 


28. 


if 


9.3§ 


29. 14 


8. H 


26. 


o# 


8 


n 


27. 


H 


8 


ni 


28. 


if 


9.31 


29. 2f 


8- 3| 


26. 


1 


8 


H 


27. 


H 


8 


nf 


28. 


24 


9.3f 


29. 2f 


8. 3f 


26. 


If 


8 


n 


27. 


n 


8 llf 


28. 


24 


9.3f 


29 3 


8- H 


26. 


ii 


8 


n 


27. 


n 


8. HJ 


28. 


24 


934 


29. 31 


8. 4 


26. 


2*1 8 


8 


27. 


n 


9. 


28 


H 


9.4 


29. 31 


8- H 


26. 


2* 


8 


H 


27. 


H 


9. 01 


28 


H 


9.41 


29. 4£ 


8. 4^ 


26. 


2| 


8 


H 


27. 


H 


9. 0i 


28 


4 


9.4^ 


29. 4| 


8. 4f 


26. 


3| 


8 


8| 


27. 


3J 


9. 0| 


28 


H 


9 .4| 


29. 5 


8. H 


26. 


3f 


8 


84 


27. 


H 


9. 0* 


28 


44 


9.4^ 


29 . 5| 


8. 4| 


26. 


H 


8 


8| 


27. 


H 


9. 0| 


28 


H 


9.4| 


29. 5f 


8. 4f 


26. 


44 


8 


8* 


27. 


5 


9. Of 


28 


H 


9 4f 


29. 6i 


8. 4J 


26. 


*»■ 


8 


84 


,27 


H 


9. 0J 


28 


6 


9-44 


29. 6| 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL, WORKER. 



95 







TABLE NO. 8 


-9 ft 


. 5 in. to 


10 1 


't. 8J 


8 in. 




DIAM. 


1 CIR. 


DIAM. ! CIR. 


DIAM. 


1 CIR. 


DIAM. 


; cir. 


FT. IN. 


! FT. 


IN. 


FT. IN. ! FT 


IN. 


FT. 

10. 


IN. 

1 


! FT. 

i 31. 


IN. 

84 


FT. IN. 


i FT. IN. 


9.5 


J29. 


7 


9. 9 | 30 


• n 


10.5 


i 32 . 8f 


9.5* 


|29. 


n 


9 . 9^ ; 30 


■ n 


10. 


H 


i 31 


81 


10.54 


i 32. 9 


9.5± 


i 29. 


n 


9 . 9^ i 30 


■ 8| 


10. 


H 


i 31 


84 


10. bi 


j 82. n 


9.5| 


i 29. 


H 


9 9f i 30 


8| 


10. 


If 


i 31. 


n 


10.5| 


j82. 94 


9.5$ 


; 29. 


H 


9 . 94 i 30 


■ 8* 


10. 


H 


! 31. 


9} 


10. 5| 


i 32. 10^ 


9.5| 


29. 


9 


9 . 9f j 30 


. 94 


11. 


if 


! 31. 


10 


10.5| 


: 32.10| 


9.5} 


29. 


n 


9 . 9} 30 


• 9J 


10 


if 


31. 


10£ 


10 5} 


| 32.11 


9.54 


29. 


9| 


9. 9| ; 30 


10i 


10. 


1* 


31 


10$ 


10.5| 


i 32.111 


9 6 


29. 


m 


9.10 i 30 


.10| 


10. 


2 


i 31. 


Hi 


10 6 


32 114 


9.64 


29 


m 


9.104 30 


11* 


10 


24 


i 31. 


n| 


10.64 


33. 0± 


9.6± 


29. 


10J 


9 . 10J; i 30 


111 


10. 


n 


i 32. 





10. 6i 


33 Of 


9 6| 


29. 


nf 


9.101 j 30 


114 


10 


2# 


i 32. 


04 


10.6| 


33. 1 


9.6* 


29. 


hi 


9.10| ; 31 


0i 


10 


2* 


i 32 


04 


IO.64 


33 If 


9.6| 


30. 





9.10f i 31 


• Of 


10 


2| 


i 32. 


11 


10.6| 


33. 1} 


9.6} 


30 


oi 


9.10} i 31 


1 


10 


2} 


32 


If 


10 6} 


33. 24 


9.6J 


30. 


oj 


9.10| 31 


If 


10. 


n 


32 


2 


10. 6 i 


33. 2| 


9 7 


30. 


H 


9.11 | 31 


■ 1* 


10. 


3 


32. 


2| 


10.7 


33. 3 


9.74 


30 


H 


9.14 i 31 


• H 


10. 


H 


32. 


2} 


10.74 


33. 31 


9.7^ 


30. 


2 


9.11^ i 31 


• 8j 


10. 


H 


32 


H 


10. 7± 


33. 3} 


9.7| 


30. 


n 


9.111 ! 31 


. 3 


10. 


H 


32. 


3| 


10.7| 


33. 4£ 


9.7£ 


30. 


n 


9.114 ! 31 


■ 8| 


10. 


H 


32 


4 


10.74 


33. 44 


9.7| 


30. 


n 


9 llf ;' 31 


. 3f 


10. 


H 


32. 


H 


10 7| 


33. 4f 


9.7} 


30. 


H 


9.11} J 31 


• H 


10. 


3} 


32. 


4} 


10.7} 


33. 5| 


9.7J 


30. 


4 


9.1l| 1 31 


4f 


10. 


H 


32. 


H 


10. 7J 


33. 5} 


9.8 


30. 


H 


10. ; 31 


5 


10. 


4 


32. 


H 


10.8 


33. Qi- 


9 84 


30. 


4f 


10. 0^ i 31 


5f 


10. 


H 


32. 


6 


io.8i 


SS. 64 


9.8± 


30 


H 


10 0£ 1 31 


H 


10. 


H 


32. 


°t 


10. 8i 


33. 6| 


9.8|i 


30 


H 


10. 0| J 31 


H 


10. 


H 


32. 


6} 


10.81 


33. 7± 


9.84! 


30 


6 


10. 0| ■ 31 


6* 


10 


H 


32 


n 


10 84 


33. 7| 


9.8fi 


30 


6| 


10. Of i 31 


7 


10. 


4| 


32. 


n 


10.8| 


33. 8 


9.8} : 


30. 


6} 


10. 0} i 31 


7f 


10. 


4} 


32. 


n 


10.8} 


33. 81 


9.84; 


30. 


n 


10. Of ! 31 


H 


10. 


H 


32. 


H 


10.84 ; 33. 8 4 



96 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL, WORKER. 





TABLE NO. 9.- 


10 ft 


. 9 in. to 12 ft. 0% in. 


DIAM. 


CIR. 


DIAM. j CIR. 


DIAM. 


CIR. 


DIAM. ! CIR. 


FT. IN. 


FT. 


IN. 


FT. IN. ] FT. 


IN. 


FT. IN. 


FT. 


IN. 


FT. IN. j FT. IN. 


10. 9 


33. 


H 


11.1 |34. 


9| 


11.5 


35. 


lOf 


11. 9 ;36 11 


10. 9$ 


33. 


9| 


11.11:34. 


10i 


11.5| 


35. 


lOf 


11. 9i 36. llf 


10. 9i 


33. 


10 


11 li i 34. 


10| 


11. 5i 


35. 


11* 


11. 9i : 36. llf 


10. 9| 


33. 


10f 


11.1| 134. 


11 


11.5| 


35. 


Hi 


11. 9| i 37. 0i 


10. 9i 


33. 


10J 


11.HI34. 


HI 


11- 5i 


36. 





11. 9i :37. 0^ 


10. 9| 


33. 


Hi 


111| i 34. 


HI 


11.5| 


36. 


OS 


11. 9| 137. of 


10. Of 


33 


n| 


H.lf :35. 


Oi 


11. 5f 


36. 


Of 


11. 9f ;37. If 


10. 9 i 


31. 





11.1* j 85. 


oi 


11.51 


36. 


1* 


11. 9| ! 37. If 


10.10 


34. 


Of 


11.2 :35. 


1 


11.6 


36. 


14 


11.10 ;37. 2| 


10.10* 


34. 


Of 


11.2i;35. 


If 


H. H 


36. 


i| 


11.10^:37. 2i 


10.10J 


34. 


H 


11.2±j 35. 


If 


11. 6i 


36. 


2| 


ll.lOi i 37. 2J 


lO.lOf 


34. 


if 


11. 2§ : 35. 


n 


11.6| 


36. 


'f 


11.10f ! 37. 3i 


10. 10i 


34. 


2 


11/2*1 85. 


H 


H.6i 


36. 


«* 


11.10i:37. 3| 


lO.lOf 


34. 


2| 


11.2| i 85 


n 


11.6| 


36. 


3i 


11.10| i 37. 4 


10. 10f 


34. 


2f 


11. 2f 1 35 


H 


11.61 


36. 


3| 


ll.lOf i 37 4i 


10.10J 


34. 


H 


11.21; 85 


3f 


11.61 


36 


H 


11.10$ j 37. 41 


10 11 


34. 


H 


11.3 135. 


H 


11 7 


36. 


*f 


11.11 147. 5i 


10.14 


34. 


n 


11.3*: 35. 


H 


11.7| 


36. 


5 


11.111 ;37 5| 


io. iii 


34. 


H 


11.3i ; 35. 


H 


11. 7i 


36. 


H 


ll.lli : 37. 6 


lO.llf 


34. 


H 


11.3| 135. 


H 


11.7| 


36. 


5| 


11. llf 137. 6| 


io. iii 


34. 


H 


11.3^ ; 35. 


H 


H. n 


36. 


84 


ll.lli 137 6J 


io. ii| 


34. 


H 


11.8|! 35. 


6 


11.7| 


36. 


6| 


11 llf 37. 7i 


lO.llf 


34. 


5|" 


11. 3f i 35. 


6* 


11. 7f 


36. 


7 


11. llf |37. 7| 


10. 11| 


34. 


H 


11.3| 135. 


61 


11.71 


36. 


H 


11 ll| ! 37 8 


11. 


34. 


6| 


11 4 \ 35. 


n 


11.8 


36. 


7f 


12. ;37. 8| 


11. 0i 


34. 


7 


11. Hi 85. 


H 


ii. H 


36. 


84 


12. 0^ ;37. 8f 


11. 0i 


34. 


n 


11. 4i i 35. 


8 


11.81 


36. 


84 


12. 0i :37. 9| 


11. Of 


34 


n 


11.4| i 35. 


8| 


11.8| 


36. 


84 


12. Of i 37 . 9i 


11. OJr 


34. 


H 


11.4ij35. 


81 


11. 8i 


36. 


94 


12. 0i ! 37.10 


ll- of 


34 


8| 


11.4|i35 


n 


11.8| 


36. 


H 


12. 0| : 37.10| 


11. Of 


34 


9 


11. 4f i 35 


n 


11.8f 


36. 


104 


12. Of i 37 . lOf 


11 OJ 


34 


n 


11.4|i 35 


10 


11.81 


36 


1<H 


12. of i37.11i 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 



97 





TABLE NO. 


10.- 


-12 ft. 1 in to 


13 ft. 4% in. 




D1AM. | CIR. 


DIAM. 


! CIR. 


DIAM. 


CIR. 


DIAM. CIR. 


FT. IN. 


FT. 


IN. 


FT. IN. 


i FT. 


IN. 


FT. IN. 


FT. IN. 


FT. IN. 


FT. IN. 


12 1 


37 


Hi 


12.5 


i 39 


04 


12. 9 


40. Of 


13 1 


1TT4 


12.14 ! 38 





12.54 


i 39 


04 


12. 94 


40. 1 


1314 


41 _ If 


12.14 i 38 


Of 


12.54 


i 39 


»'$ 


12. 94 


40. lj 


13 14 


41. 2 


12. If i 38 


0| 


12.5| 


i 39 


14 


12. 9| 


40. 14 


13 If 


41. 2f 


12. 14 


38 


H 


12.54 


39 


if 


12. 94 


40. 24 


13 14 


41. 24 


12. If 


38 


H 


12.5| 


i 39 


2 


12. 9| 


40. 2| 


13. If 


41. 34 


12. If 


38 


if 


12. 5| 


i 39 


H 


12. 94 


40. 3 


13.14 


41. 3f 


12. 1* 


38 


H 


12.54 


39 


2$ 


12. 94 


40. 3f 


13.14 


41. 4 


12.2 : 38. 


*t 


12.6 


39. 


8* 


12.10 


40. 3f 


13.2 


41. 4f 


12.24 


38. 


3 


12.64 


39. 


8* 


12.104 


40. 44 


13.24 


41. 4f 


12. 24 


38. 


H 


12. 64 


39. 


4 


12.104 


40. 4f 


13.24 


41. 54 


12. 2| 


38. 


8* 


12.6| 


39. 


H 


12.101 


40. 5 


18.2| 


41. 54 


12. 2| 


38. 


H 


12.64 


39. 


if 


12.104 


40. 5| 


13.24 


41. 54 


12.2| 


38. 


H 


12 6| 


39. 


H 


12.10| 


40. 5f 


13.2| 


41. 64 


12. 2f 


38. 


5 


12.64 


39. 


H 


12.104 


40. 64 


13.24 


41. 64 


12.2| 


38. 


n 


12.64 


39. 


6 


12 104 


40. 64 


1324 


41. 74 


12.3 


38. 


5f 


12.7 


39 


H 


12.11 


40. 64 13.3 41. 74 


12.34 


38. 


n 


12.74 


36. 


Of 


12.114 


40. 7| 


13.34 41. H 


12. 3i 


38. 


n 


12. 7 J 


39. 


n 


12.114 


40. 74 


13.34, 41. 84 


12.3| 


38. 


7 


12.7| 


39. 


74 


12.11| 


40. 84 


13.3| 


41. 8f 


12.34 


38. 


n 


12.74 


39. 


7$ 


12.114 


40. 84 


13.34 


41. 9 


12.3| 


38. 


n 


12.7| 


39. 


8| 


12.11| 


40. 84 


13. 3f 


41. 94 


12. 3f 


38. 


n 


12. 7f 


39. 


8* 


12.114 


40. 94 


13.34 


41. 94 


12. 3J 


38. 


84 


12.74 


39. 


94 


12.114 


40. 9f 


13.34 41.104 


12.4 i 


38. 


9 


12.8 


39. 


94 


13. i 


40 10 


13.4 


41.10f 


12.4|i 


38. 


»i 


12.84 


39. 


94 


13. 04: 


40.10| 


13 44 


41.11 


12.44 i 


38. 


9f 


12.84 


39. 


10| 


13. 04; 


40.10| 


13.44 


41.H| 


12.4f i 


38. 


104 


12.8| 


39. 


10* 


13. 0|i 


40.114 


13. 4j 


41.114 


12.44! 


38. 


101 


12.84 


39. 


11 


13. 04; 


40.11f 


13.44 


42. 04 


12.4#; 


38. 


10$ 


12.8| . 


39. 


114 


13. Of; 


41. 


13 4f 


42. Of 


12.44 i 


38. 


Hi 


12. 8f 


39. 


11$ 


13. 04: 


41. 0| 


13.44 


42. 1 


12.44; 


38. 


111 


12.84 


40. 


04 


13. 04: 


41. 04 


13 44 


42. If, 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 



TABLE NO. 11.— 13 ft. 5 in. to 14 ft. 8% in. 



CIR. 


FT. 


IN. 


42. 


1* 


42. 


n 


42. 


24 


42. 


3 


42. 


H 


42. 


n 


42. 


H 


42. 


*4 



DIAM. 
FT. IN. 



13. 9 
13. 94 
13. 9i 
13. 9| 
13. 9| 
13. Of 
13. 9f 
13. 9J 



CIR. 


FT. 


IN. 


43. 


n 


43. 


2f 


43. 


3* 


43. 


H 


43 


3* 


43. 


H 


43. 


4| 


43. 


6* 



DIAM. 
FT. IN . 



14.1 
14 .1* 
14. li 
14.1| 
14. 1J 
14.1| 
14. If 
14. li 



CIR. 

FT. IN. 



44. 2 J 

44. 3± 

44. 3f 

44. 44 

44. 44 

44. 4J 

44. 5± 

44. 5| 



DIAM. 
FT. IN. 



14.5 
14.54 
14. 5i 
44. 5| 
14.54 
14. 5| 
14. 5f 
14.54 



42. 


44 


42. 


H 


42. 


H 


42. 


H 


42. 


64 


42. 


64 


42. 


n 


42. 


7| 



13.10 

13.104 

13.10| 

13.10| 

13.104 

13.10| 

13.10f 

13.10| 



43. 


H 


43. 


54 


43. 


H 


43 


H 


43. 


7 


43. 


H 


43. 


74 


43. 


H 



14.2 
14.24 
14. 2i 

14.2| 
14.24 
14. 2f 
14. 2f 
14.24 



44. 


6 


44. 


6| 


44. 


64 


44. 


n 


44. 


n 


44. 


8 


44. 


8* 


44. 


8f 



14 6 
14.64 
14. 6i 
14.6| 
14.64 
14.6| 
14 . 6f 
14.64 



42 


8 


42 


H, 


42 


84 


42 


H 


42 


n 


42 


10 


42 


10fi 


42 


104 



13.11 

13.114 

13. Hi 

13.11| 

13.114 

13.11| 

13.11f 

13.114 



43 


8| 


43. 


9 


43. 


n 


43. 


n 


43 


10i 


43 


10| 


43 


11 


43 


hi 



14.3 
14.34 
14. Si 
14.3| 
14.3* 
14. 3| 
14. 3f 
14.34 



44. 94 
44. 94 
44.10 
44.10| 
44.10| 
44 .114 
44.114 
44.114 



14.7 
14.74 
14. 7± 
14 
14 
147| 
14. 7f 
14.74 






42. iii 

42.111 

43. 

43. 0| 

43. Of 

43. 14 

43. 14 

43. 14 



14. 

14. 04 
14. 0± 
14. 0| 
14. 04 
14. Of 
14. Of 
14. 04 



43. 


11* 


44. 


04 


44. 


04 


44. 


04 


44. 


If 


44. 


If 


44. 


24 


44. 


24 



14.4 
14.44 
14. 4i 
14.4| 
14.44 
14. 4| 
14. 4f 
14.44 



45. 


Of 


45. 


Of 


45. 


14 


45. 


H 


45. 


14 


45. 


H 


45. 


2} 


45. 


34 



14.8 

14.84 
14. 8i 
14.8| 
14.84 
14. 8 j 
14. 8f 
14.84 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 



99' 



TABLE NO. 12.— 14 ft. 9 in. to 16 ft. 0% in. 



DIAM. 
FT. IN. 



14. 9 

14. 94 
14. 9± 
14. 9| 
14. 94 
14. 9f 
14. 9} 

i4. n 



CIR. 


DIAM. 


CIR. 


FT. IN. 


FT. IN. 
15.1 


FT. IN. 


46. 4 


47. 4f 


46. 4| 


15 ±4 


47. 5 


46. 44 


15 li 


47. 5| 


46. 5i 


15.1| 


47. 5} 


46. 5| 


15. 14 


47. 64 


46. 6 


15.1# 


47. 6f 


46. 6| 


15. If 


47. 7 


46. 6f 


15.1| 


47. 7| 



DIAM. 
FT. IN. 



15.5 
15.54 
15.54 
15.5| 
15.54 
15 .5| 
15 .5f 
15 .5J 



CIR. 


FT. 


IN. 


48. 


6* 


48. 


5| 


48. 


6 


48. 


6# 


48. 


6J 


48. 


T* 


48. 


H 


48. 


n 



DIAM. 
FT. IN. 



15. 9 

15. 94 
15. 94 
15. 9| 
15. 94 
15. 9| 
15. 9f 
15. 94 



14.10 

14.104 

14.104 

14.10f 

14.104 

14.10| 

14.10| 

14.104 



46. 74 

46. 74 

46. 74 

46. 8f 

46. 8f 

46. 94 

46. 94 

46. 94 



15 
15 



15.24 
15.2| 
15.24 
15. 2| 
15. 2f 
15.24 



47 


n 


47 


84 


47. 


H 


47. 


9 


47. 


n 


47. 


9f 


47. 


104 


47. 


iot 



15.6 

15.64 

15.64 

15.6| 

15 .64 

15.6| 

15.6| 

15.64 



8i 



48. 
48. 
48. 
48. 9| 
48. 9| 
48-104 
48 . 10| 
48.11 



15.10 

15.104 

15.104 

15.10| 

15.104 

15.10| 

15.10f 

15 .10| 



14.11 

14.114 

14.114 

14.11| 

14.114 

14.11| 

14.11| 

14.114 



46.10| 
46.10f 
46.114 
46.114 
46.1l| 
47. 04 
47. 0| 
47. 1 



15.3 

15.34 

15.34 

15.3| 

15.34 

15. 3f 

15.8| 

15.34 



47 


104 


47 


11* 


47 


llf 


48. 





48. 


04 


48. 


o* 


48. 


1* 


48. 


If 



15.7 

15.74 

15.74 

15.7| 

15.74 

15.7| 

15.7| 

15.74 



48.114 
48.114 
49. 04 
49. 0| 
49. 1 
49. If 
49. 1| 
49. 24 



15.11 
15.114 
15.114 
15.11f 
15.114 
15. llf 
15 llf 
15.114 



15. 

15. 04 
15. 04 
15. 0| 
15. 04 
15. Of 
15. Of 
15. 04 



47. 14 

47. 24 

47. 2f 

47. 3 

47. 3| 

47. 34 

47. 44 



15.4 
15.44 
15.44 
15. 4| 
15.44 
15. 4f 
15. 4f 
15.44 



48. 


2 


48. 


n 


48. 


n 


48. 


34 


48. 


H 


48. 


4 


48. 


4* 


48. 


4f 



15.8 

15.84 
15.84 
15.8| 
15.84 
15.8| 
15 .8f 
15.84 



49. 2f 

49. 3 

49. 8| 

49. 3f 

49. 44 

49. 44 

49. 5 

49. 5| 



16. 
16. 04 
16. 04 
16. 0| 
16. 04 
16. Of 
16. Of 
16. 04 



LofC. 



100 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL, WORKER. 



TABLE NO. 13-16 ft. 1 in. to 17 ft. 4% in. 



CIR. 


FT. 


IN. 


50. 


H 


50. 


6| 


50. 


74 


50. 


n 


50. 


n 


50. 


H 


50. 


8| 


50. 


9 



DIAM. 
FT. IN. 



16.5 
16. H 
16 5i 
16.5| 
16. 54 
16. 5| 
16.5| 
16. 5J 



CIR. DIAM. 
FT. IN. FT. IN. 



51. 6J 

51. 7i 

51. 7| 

51. 8 

51. 8| 

51. 8J 

51. 9i 

51. 9f 



16. 9 

L6. 94 

16. 9i 

16. 9| 

16. 9| 

16. 9| 

16. 9| 

16. 9J 



CIR. 
FT. IN. 



52. 7| 

52. 7 J 

52. 8£ 

52. 8| 

52. 9 

52. 9| 

52. 9f 
52. 10J 



DIAM. 
FT. IN. 



17. 1 

17. 14 
17. 14 



17 
17 



If 

H 

17. If 
17. If 
17. 1J 



CIR. 
FT. IN. 



53. 8 
53' 8| 
53 8| 
53. 9i 
53. 9| 
53 10 
53 lOf 
5310| 



50 


H 


50 


n 


50 


m 


50 


10* 


50 


ii 


50 


hi 


50 


ii* 


51 


01 



16.6 
16- 6* 
16. 6i 
16.6| 
16.64 
16.6| 
16. 6f 
16. 64 



51.10 
51.10| 
51.10| 
51.114 

51.114 

52. 

52. 0| 
52. Of 



16.10 

16.104 

16.104 
16 lOf 

16.104 

16.104 

le.iof 

16.10| 



52.104 

52.11 
52.111 
52.1 If 
53 04 
53. 04 
53. 1 
53. 14 



17. 2 

17. 24 
17. 24 
17. 2| 
17. 24 
17. 2f 
17. 2j 
17. 2| 



53 114 
53 114 
531l| 
54. 04 
54. 0| 
54. 14 
54. 14 
54. If 



51 
51 
51 
51 
51 
51 
51 
51 



Of 
1 

If 
If 

n 
24 
3 

84 



16 7 
16 74 
16.74 
16. 7| 
16. 74 
16. 74 
16. 7f 
16. 74 



52 
52 
52 
52 
52 
52 
52 
52 



14 
H 

n 

2f 

34 
34 



16.11 
16. 114 
16. 114 
16. HI 
16. 114 
16. ll| 
16 llf 
16. 114 



53 
53 
53 
53 
53 
53 
53 
53 



If 

n 
24 
n 
n 
34 

H 
44 



17. 3 
17. 34 
17. 34 
17. 3| 
17. 3^ 
17. 34 
17. 3f 
17. 34 



54. 24 

54. 24 

54. 3 

54. 34 

54. 34 

54. 44 

54. 44 

54 5 



51 


8*1 


51 


44 


51 


u 


61 


5 


51 


H 


51 


H 


51 


64 


51 


64 



16.8 
16.8 
16.8 
16.8 



I6.84 



16 
16 
16 



52 
52 
52 
52 
52 
52 
52 
52 



n 

H 

54 
H 

64 

64 

7 



17 
17 
17 
17 
17 
17 
17 
17 





04 
04 
0| 
04 
04 
Of 

oj 



53 
53 
53 
53 
53 
53 
53 
53 



n 


17. 


4 


H 


17. 


n\ 


5* 


17. 


HI 


8 


17. 


m 


6* 


17. 


H' 


6J 


17. 


H 


n 


17. 


H 


n 


17. 


*l 



54 5| 

54. 54 

54 64 

54. 64 

54. 7 

54. 7| 

54. 7f 

54. 84 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 



101 



TABLE NO. 14.— 17 ft. 5 in. to 18 ft. 8% in. 



DIAM. ; CIR. 


DIAM. 


! CIR. 


DIAM. 


CIR. 


DIAM. ; CIR. 


FT. IN. FT. 


IN. 


FT. IN. 


> FT. 


IN. 


FT. IN. 


FT. 


IN. , 


FT. IN. 


: FT. IN. 


17.5 ! 54 


8 I 


17 9 


55 


n 


18 1 


56. 


9f 


18.5 


i 57.10* 


17.5^ i 54 


9 


17. 9* 


55. 


H 


18 H 


56. 


10* 


18 


5* 


i 57.10| 


17. 5^ 54. 


H 


17. 9± 


55 


9| 


18. 1± 


56. 


10* 


18 


H 


57.11 


17. 5{i 54 


9| 


17. 9| 


55 


10| 


18.1| 


56. 


10* 


18 


H 


57.11| 


17 . 5* i 54 . 


10* 


17. 9^ 


55. 


lOf 


18.1* 


56. 


Hi 


18 


H 


i 57.11f 


17 ■5|:' 54. 


10* 


17. 9f 


55 


"i 


18.1| 


56. 


H| 


18 


H 


i 58 . 0* 


17.5f i 54 


10* 


17. 9f 


55. 


lit 


18 If 


57. 





18 


5j 


i 58 . 0| 


17 . 5| i 54 . 


Hi 


17. 9* 


55. 


n| 


18. 1* 


57. 


o* 


18 


H 


58. 1 


17.6 i 54. 


ii* 


17.10 


56 


0i 


18.2 


57 


o* 


18 


.6 


58. If 


17 . 6-J i 55 


o* 


17.10* 


56 


0| 


18.2* 


57 


H 


18 


•6* 


58 . 1* 


17 . 6± i 55 . 


o* 


17. 10± 


56. 


1 


18. 2± 


57 


if 


18 


.6* 


58. 2* 


17. 6|; 55. 


n 


17.10f 


56. 


H 


18.2| 


57 


2 


18 


■6| 


58. 2| 


17.6i> 55. 


H 


17.101 


56. 


n 


18. aj 


57. 


21 


18 


•6* 


58. 3 


17. 6f: 55. 


i* 


17.10| 


56. 


n 


18.2| 


57. 


n 


18 


■«l 


58. 3| 


17. 6f i 55. 


2 


17.10J 


56. 


2| 


18. 2f 


57. 


H 


18 


6f 


58. 3f 


17 . 6| | 55 . 


n 


17.10* 


56. 


3 


18. 2 J 


57. 


Sf 


18 


6* 


58. 4* 


17.7 : 55. 


n 


17.11 


56. 


8* 


18.3 


57. 


4 


18 


7 


58. 4* 


17.7* | 55. 


H 


17.11| 


56. 


»i 


18. 3* 


57. 


H 


18 


H 


58. 4* 


17. 7±; 55. 


H 


17. Hi 


56. 


H 


18.3* 


57. 


4 


18 


n 


58. 5§ 


17.7|i 55, 


4 


17.11| 


56. 


H 


18.3| 


57. 


H 


18 


n 


58. 5| 


17.7| i 55. 


H 


17. Hi 


56. 


5 


18.3* 


57. 


H 


18 


H 


58. 6* 


17.7|i 55. 


4J 


17.H| 


56. 


H 


18. 3| 


57. 


6 


18 


H 


58. 6* 


17.7|j 55. 


H 


17.11f 


56. 


5f 


18. 3f 


57. 


6| 


18 


7f 


58. 6* 


17. 7* | 55. 


H 


IT. 11* 


56. 


64 


18.3* 


57. 


61 


18 


n 


58. 7i 


17 8 ! 55. 


6 


18. 


56. 


6i 


18.4 


57. 


7* 


18 


8 


58. 7f 


17.8*': 55. 


«! 


18. 0* 


56. 


7 


18.4* 


57. 


7* 


18 


84 


58. 8* 


17. 8^; 55. 


Of 


18. 0± 


56. 


n 


18.4* 


57. 


n 


18 


8i 


58. 8* 


17. 8f i 55. 


7* 


18. Of 


56. 


n 


18.4| 


57. 


8f 


18 


8| 


58. 8* 


17.8-1 i 55. 


H 


18. 0* 


56. 


H 


18.4* 


57. 


8f 


18 


84, 


58. 9* 


17.8JS 55. 


8 


18. 0| 


56. 


H 


18.4| 


57. 


9* 


18 


8|i 


58. 9f 


17.8fi 55. 


H 


18. 0| 


56. 


H 


18. 4f 


57. 


9* 


18 


8fi 


58.10 


17.8*: 55. 


8f 


18. 0* 


56. 


9| 


18.4* 


57. 


H 


18 


8| i 


58.10| 



102 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 





TABLE NO. 


15.- 


18 ft 


. 9 in to 20 ft. 0% in. 




DIAM. 


CIR. 


DIAM. 


CIR. 


DIAM. 


CIR. 


DIAM . ; 


DIAM. 


FT. IN. 


FT. IN. 


FT. IN. 


FT. 


IN. 


FT. IN. 


FT. 


IN. 


FT. IN. ! 


FT. IN. 


18. 9 


58.104 


19.1 


59. 


Hf 


19.5 


61. 





19. 9 i 


62. 04 


18. 9* 


58.11! 


19.14 


59. 


HI 


19.54 


61. 


Of 


19. 94: 


62. 1 


18. 9i 


58.11| 


19.11 


60. 


04 


19.5! 


61. 


Of 


19. 9! 


62. If 


18. 9| 


59. 


19.1| 


60. 


04 


19.54 


61. 


H 


19. 94 


62. If 


18. 9i 


59. 0| 


19.14 


60. 


1 


19.54 


61. 


H 


19. 94 


62. 24 


18. 9| 


59. Of 


19. If 


60. 


If 


19.54 


61. 


11 


19. 9| 


62. 24 


18. 9} 


59. 14 


19. If 


60. 


If 


19. 5f 


61. 


2! 


19. 9f 


62. 2| 


18. 9 J 


59. If 


19.14 


60. 


24 


19.54 


61. 


2f 


19. 94 


62. 31 


18.10 ' 


59. 2 


19.2 


60. 


24 


19.6 


61. 


H 


19.10 


62. 3f 


18.104 


59. 2f 


19.24 


60. 


n 


19.64 


61. 


H 


19.104 


62. 4 


18.10! 


59. 2f 


19.21 


60. 


H 


19.6! 


61. 


H 


19.10! 


62. 44 


18.10| 


59. 34 


19.24 


60. 


3f 


19.6f 


61. 


H 


19.10f 


62. 44 


18.104 


59. 34 


19.24 


60. 


H 


19.64 


6L. 


H 


19.104 


62. 51 


18.10| 


59. ± 


19.2| 


60. 


H 


19.64 


61. 


5 


19.104 


62. 5| 


18 . 10f 


59. 4f 


19. 2f 


60. 


±* 


19. 6f 


61. 


H 


19.10f 


62. 6 


18.10J 


59. 4f 


19.24 


60. 


54 


19.64 


61. 


51 


19.104 


62. 6f 


18.11 


59. 54 


19.3 


60. 


5f 


19.7 


61. 


64 


19.11 J62. 64 


18.114 


59. 54 


19.34 


60. 


64 


19.74 


61. 


64 


19.114 i 62. 7! 


18.111 


59. 5| 


19.31 


60. 


64 


19.7! 


61. 


7 


19.111 162. 7| 


18.11| 


59. 6f 


19.3| 


60. 


H 


19.74 


61. 


74 


19 HI 


62. 8 


18.114 


59. 6f 


19.34 


60. 


7! 


19.74 


61. 


71 


19.114 


62. 8f 


18.11| 


59. 74 


19.34 


60. 


n 


19.74 


61. 


81 


19.114 


62. 8f 


18.11| 


59. 74 


19. 3f 


60. 


8 


19. 7f 


61 


84 


19.11f 


62. 94 


18.114 


59. 74 


19.34 


60 


84 


19.74 


61 


9 


19.114 


62. 94 


19. 


59. 84 


19.4 


60. 


81 


19.8 


61. 


9f 


20. 


62.10 


19. 04 


59. 8| 


19.44 


60. 


n 


19.84 


61. 


9f 


20. 04 


62.10f 


19. 01 


59. 9 


19.4! 


60. 


94 


19.8! 


61. 


101 


20. 0! 


62.10f 


19. Of 


59. 9£ 


19.4| 


60. 


10 


19.8| 


61. 


104 


20. Of 


62.114 


19. 04 


59. 9| 


19.44 


60. 


104 


19.84 


61. 


Hi 


20. 04 


62.114 


19. Of 


59.10! 


19. 44 


60. 


10f 


19.8| 


61. 


Hi 


20. Of 


62.114 


19. Of 


59.10| 


19. 4f 


60. 


114 


19. 8f 


61. 


nf 


20. Of 


63. Of 


19. 04 


i 59.11 


19.44 


60 


111 


19.84 


62 


04 


20. 0| 


63. Of 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 103 



ANGLE IRON 



To find a uniform principle which can be applied 
in all cases of bending angle iron of any width and 
thickness, has been found to be more difficult than 
any of the preceding rules. While there is an end- 
less variety of sizes of this kind of iron, each influ- 
encing the expansion and contraction in bending, it 
has been found during the course of numerous ex- 
periments, as well as from information obtained from 
practical men, that bars of angle iron of the same size 
and length may give results widely different, accord- 
ing to the heat and manner of working them. In 
angle iron the mass of metal forming the root, or 
corners, offers an obstacle to the expansion and con- 
traction of the bar when it is placed on the inside or 
outside of the ring. The following rule, constructed 
on the principle of measuring the root, will be found 
correct in all sizes generally used, viz., one and one- 
half to four inches. 

RULE FOR FINDING THE CIRCUMFERENCE OF OVAL RINGS. 

Add the greatest length and the greatest width 
together and divide by two. Refer to the tables for 
circumference. 



104 THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 

RULE FOR BENDING ANGLE IRON. 

Rule for rings with flange on the outside — 

To the inside diameter add twice the thickness of the 
root (measure from the outer corner to the inner one) 
and refer to the tables for circumference. Example: 
What length of angle iron three inches square and 
one-half inch thick will it require to form a ring 
three feet in diameter with the flange on the outside? 
Angle iron of the above size will be found to be one 
inch thick in the root or corner; then twice that 
thickness equals two inches ; this added to three feet 
equals three feet and two inches, the circumference 
of which is nine feet and eleven and three-eighths 
inches. 

Rule for rings with flange on the inside \ m 

From the outside diameter of the ring subtract twice 
the thickness of the root and refer to the table for 
circumference. Example: What length of angle 
iron two and one-half by three-eighths will form a 
ring two feet, six inches in diameter outside meas- 
ure? The thickness of the root in this size is seven- 
eighths of an inch, which multiplied by two gives 
one and three-fourths inches, which substracted from 
two feet six inches, leaves two feet four and one- 
quarter inches, the circumference of which is seven 
feet four and three-quarter inches. 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 



105 



TABLE NO. 16.— Weight of steel per foot. 



Square 


Round 


Octagon 


Size Lbs. 


Size Lbs. 


Size Lbs. 


£ 


.05 


I- 


04 


1 


.04 


A 


.12 


A 


.09 


3 
16 


.10 


i 


.21 


i 

4 


.17 


1 

4 


.18 


A 


.33 


A 


.26 


A 


.28 


I 


.48 


t 


.38 


I 


.40 


A 


.65 


A 


.51 


A 


.54 


1 


.85 


i 


.67 


i 

2 


.70 


A 


1.08 


A 


.85 


_9_ 
16 


.89 


1 


1.33 


I 


1.04 


f 


1.10 


H 


1.61 


1 1 

T7 


1.27 


11 
T6 


1.33 


3 
4 


1.92 


f 


1.50 


t 


1.58 


« 


2.24 

i 


Iff 
T6 


1.76 


13 
T6 


1.83 


1 


2.60 


1 


2.04 


i 


2.16 


« 


3.06 


15 
16 


2.35 


15 
16 


2.48 




3.40 




2.67 




2.82 


li 


4.30 


1 i 


3.38 


H 


3.56 


li 


5.31 


H 


4.17 


H 


4.40 


If 


6.43 


if 


5.05 


if 


5.32 


H 


7.65 


i i 

1 2 


6.01 


H 


6.34 


H 


8.98 


If 


7.05 


if 


7 32 


if 


10.40 


li 


8.18 


1 3 


8 64 


1 7 


11.90 


l* 


9.38 


1 t 
1 8 


9.92 


2 


13.60 


2 


10.17 


2 


11.28 


2i 


15.40 


2| 


12.05 


2i 


12.71 


2i 


17.20 


2 4 


13.60 


2i 


14.24 


21 


19.20 


2| 


15.10 


2f 


15.88 


a* 


21.20 


2i 


16.68 


2* 


17.65 



106 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 



TABLE NO. 17.— Weight of steel per foot. 



Square 


Round- 


Octagon 


Size 


Lbs. 


Size 


Lbs. 


Size 


Lbs. 


2% 


23.50 


2% 


18.39 


2% 


19.45 


2% 


25.70 


2K 


20.18 


2% 


21.28 


2% 


28.20 


2% 


22.06 


2% 


23.28 


3 


30.60 


3 


24.10 


3 


25.36 


m 


33.13 


3M 


26.12 


3^ 


27.50 


3M 


35.90 


3^ 


28.30 


3^ 


29.28 


3% 


38.54 


3K 


30.45 


3% 


32.10 


3^ 


41.60 


3^ 


32.70 


sy 2 


34.56 


3^ 


44.57 


3^ 


35.20 


z% 


37.05 


3M 


47.80 


3% 


37.54 


sk 


39.68 


4 


54.40 


4 


42 72 


4 


45.12 


4M 


61.40 


4K 


48.30 


4M 


50.84 


4^ 


68.90 


4^ 


54.60 


4M 


56.90 


4% 


76.70 


4M 


60.30 


m 


62.52 


5 


85.00 


5 


66.80 


5 


70.60 


5M 


93.70 


5M 


73.60 


5M 


77.80 


h% 


102.80 


5K 


80.80 


b% 


85.15 


5M 


112.40 


5M 


88.30 


5% 


93.12 


6 


122.40 


6 


96.10 


6 


101.45 


6^ 


143.60 


6K 


113.20 


6*6 


117.12 


7 


166.40 


7 


130.80 


7 


138.24 


8 


217.60 


8 


170.88 


8 


180.48 


9 


275.60 


9 


218.40 


9 


227.84 


10 


340.00 


10 


267.20 


10 


282.40 


11 


41120 


11 


223.00 


11 


340.60 


12 


489.60 


12 


384.40 


12 


405.80 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 



107 



TABLE NO. 18.— Weight of steel per foot. 



Inch 


X 


% 


% 


X 


% 


% 


1 


X 


.214 


.428 


.641 










% 


.267 


.534 


.802 


' 1.069 








% 


.321 


.641 


.^62 


1.283 


V.603 






% 


.374 


.748 


1.122 


1.496 


1.870 


' 2.244 




l 


.427 


.855 


1.283 


1.710 


2.138 


2.565 




m 


.481 


.962 


1.443 


1.924 


2.405 


2.886 


' 3.848' 


iH 


.534 


1.069 


1.603 


2.138 


2.672 


3.206 


4.275 


W 


.588 


1.176 


1.763 


2.351 


2.939 


3.527 


4.703 


IX 


.641 


1.283 


1.924 


2.565 


3.206 


3.848 


5.130 


i% 


.695 


1.389 


2.084 


2.779 


3.473 


4.168 


5.558 


m 


.748 


1.496 


2.244 


2.993 


3.741 


4.480 


5.985 


i% 


.802 


1.603 


2.405 


3.206 


4 008 


4.809 


6.413 


2 


.855 


1.710 


2.565 


3.420 


4.275 


5.130 


6.840 


2M 


.908 


1 817 


2.725 


3.634 


4.542 


5.451 


7.268 


%H 


.962 


1.924 


2.886 


3 848 


4.809 


5.771 


7.695 


2% 


1.015 


2.031 


3.046 


4.061 


5 077 


6.092 


8.123 


2M 


1.069 


2.138 


3.206 


4.275 


5.344 


6.413 


8.550 


2% 


1.122 


2.244 


3.367 


4.489 


5.611 


6.733 


8 978 


2% 


1.176 


2 351 


3.527 


4.703 


5.878 


7.054 


9.405 


3 


1.283 


2.565 


3.848 


5.130 


6.413 


7.695 


10 260 


3^ 


1.389 


2.779 


4.168 


5.558 


6.947 


8.336 


11.115 


3^ 


1.496 


2.993 


4.489 


5.985 


7.481 


8.978 


11.970 


%% 


1.603 


3.206 


4.809 


6.413 


8.016 


9.619 


12.825 


4 


1.710 


3.420 


5.130 


6.840 


8 550 


10.260 


13 680 


4K 


1.817 


3.634 


5.451 


7.268 


9.084 


10.901 


14.533 


4^ 


1.904 


3.848 


5.771 


7.695 


9.619 


11.542 


15.390 


4K 


2.031 


4.C61 


6.092 


8.123 


10.153 


12.184 


16 245 


5 


2.138 


4.275 


6 413 


8.650 


10.688 


12.825 


17.100 


5K 


2.244 


4.489 


6.733 


8.978 


11.222 


13.466 


17.955 


5^ 


2.351 


4.703 


7.054 


9.405 


11.756 


14.108 


18 810 


BM 


2.458 


4.916 


7.374 


9.833 


12.291 


14.749 


19.665 


6 


2.565 


5.130 


7.695 


10.260 


12.825 


15.390 


20.520 



108 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 



TABLE NO. 19.— Decimal Equivalents. 

Eighths, Sixteenths, Thirty-seconds and Sixty-fourths 

of an inch for use in connection with 

Micrometer Calipers. 



Eighths 
h =.125 
i =.250 
| =.375 
i =.500 
| =.625 
| =.875 



Sixteenths 
T V=.0625 
T \=.1875 
^=.3125 
tV= 4375 
T \=.5625 
H=-6875 
ff=.8L25 
if=.9374 



Thirty-seconds 
sV=.03125 

&=. 09375 
£,=.15625 
? V= -21875 
&= .28125 



Thirty-seconds Con. 
H= 34375 
H= .40625 
H=. 46875 
^=.53125 
i|= 59375 
H=. 65625 
||= . 71875 
||= . 78125 
||= . 84375 
||= . 90625 
H=. 96875 



Sixty-fourths 
^=.015625 
&=. 046875 
&= .078125 

e\=. 109375 
&=. 140625 
ii=. 171875 
if =.203125 
if=.234375 
H=- 265625 
if=. 296875 



Sixty 



H 



fourths Con. 
= .328125 
= .359375 
=.390625 
= .421875 
= 453125 
= .484375 
= .515625 
= .546875 
=.578125 
= .600375 
=.640625 
= .671875 
= .703125 
=.734375 
= .765625 
= .796875 
= 828125 
= .859375 
=.890625 
= .921875 
= .953125 
= .984375 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 



109 



TABLE NO. 20.— U. S. Standard Bolts and Nuts. 



u 


% 





o 


H; H 


F 


be so 

: ° 


-i *-i - 


S erg- 


: S'8, 


C CD S 

: 8p& 


C5-B CT 

CD CD m- 

of 


PB tf 

F* GO O 


tnOJhtJS MCD 

cd e oB 1 tf 

• SB San- 


Inches 


Inch 


Inches 


Ins. 


Ins. 


Ins. 


Ins. 


Inches 


A 


24 


.156 


A 


A 


i 


A 


1 


1 


20 


.185 


if 


A 


A 


i 


1 


3 

"8 


16 


.294 


A 


H 


A 


1 


liV 


tV 


14 


.344 


H 


1 


I 


A 


1 1 
1 4 


1 


13 


.400 


» 


7 
"8 


TV 


1 


11 


A 


12 


.454 


1 5 
5^ 


1 


1 
2 


A 


1A 


5 

8 


11 


.507 


H 


H 


A 


f 


if 


3 

4 


10 


.620 


li 


H 


f 


3 
4 


2 


£ 


9 


.731 


t 


1* 


t 


It 


2| 


1 


8 


.873 


27 
3~2 


if 


1 


1 


2f 


li 


7 


.940 


H 


114 


1 


H 


3 


11 


7 


1.065 


J A 


2 


H 


li 


31 


if 


6 


1.160 


1A 


2A 


H 


if 


31 


11 


6 


1.284 


1t 5 6 


2t 5 6 


If 


31 


if 


51 


1.389 


1A 


»A 


11 


if 


4i 


11 


5 


1.490 


m 


2| 


if 


if 


41 


n 


5 


1.615 


it 


2| 


l! 


if 


4f 


2 


H 


1.712 


125 
A ?2 


8* 


if 


2 


5f 


2-1 


H 


1.962 


Hi 


8* 


2 


2i 


5f 


4 


2.175 


*H 


31 


2i 


2i 


6f 


2| 


4 


2.425 


2*1 


41 


2i 


24 


7 


3 


3i 


2.628 


2| 


4| 


2| 


3 


n 
si 


3i 


H 


2.878 


Q27 
^3"2 


4| 


8i 


34 


3i 


3| 


3.100 


8A 


5f 


3i 


3i 


8f 


31 


3 


3.317 


3 T 5 6 


5f 


3i 


3| 


9| 


4 


3 


3.566 


Q 9 
°T"6 


61 


3| 


4 


101 


4i 


2f 


3.825 


311 


6i 


4 


4i 


10 1 


4i 


2| 


4.027 


*A 


6* 


44- 


H 


ill 


41 


2f 


4.255 


4i 


U 


4i 


4f 


12 


5 


21 


4.480 


41 


7f 


4f 


5 


12 | 


51 


2| 


4.730 


4| 


7* 


5 


51 


13i 


5* 


2f 


5.053 


5A 


8f 


Bi 


5i 


181 


5| 


2f 


5.203 


5i 


8f 


5^ 


5f 


141 


6 


2i 


5.423 


5A 


n 


Bi 


6 


15 f 



110 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 






TABLE NO. 21.— Different Colors of Iron and Steel 
Caused by Heat. 



DEG. 


FAR. 


977 Iron and steel becomes very dark red. 


1292 " 


' blood red. 


1472 " 


' dark cherry red. 


1657 " 


1 cherry red. 


1832 " 


' bright cherry red. 


2012 " 


' dark orange. 


2192 " 


' bright orange. 


2372 " 


' white. 


2552 " 


1 brilliant white welding 


heat. 


2830^ Iron and steel becomes dazzling white m e It i n g* 

heat. 
From 1657 to 1832 is the proper heat for hardening steel. 


" 2000 " 2500 " ll " u " welding steel. 


" 2600 u 2700 " " u " " welding wrought 


iron. 


TABLE NO. 22.— Properties of Metals. 






^ 


^ 








ptV 


otv 






Melting Point 


o-afw 


!.?§ 


Tensil 




Deg. Far. 


a' S- 


a' ct- 


Strength 


Aluminum . . . 


1140 


166.5 


.0963 


15000-30000 


Antimony. . . . 


810—1000 


421.6 


.2439 


1050 


Brass 


1500—1780 


523.2 


.3027 


30000- 45000 


Copper 


1930 


552 


.3195 


30000- 4000O 


Gold (pure). . 


2100 


1200.9 


.6949 


20380 


Cast Iron .... 


1900-2200 


450 


.2604 


20000- 30000 


Wrought Iron 


2700—2830 


480 


.2779 


35000-60000 


Lead 


618 


709.7 


.4106 


1000— 3000 


Nickel 


2000 


548.7 


.3175 


50000 


Silver" 


1800 


665.1 


.3791 


40000 


Steel ." 


2370—2680 
475 


489.6 
458.3 
436 5 


.2834 
.2652 
.2526 


50000—120000 


Tin 


5000 


Zinc 


7 


80 


3500 



Note.— The variations are due to different qualities. 



THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL. WORKER. 



Ill 



TABLE NO. 22.— Sizes of Drills for Pipe Taps. 



Nominal 


Diam. of 


No. Thr'ds 


Size Tap 


Drill 


Per Inch. 


H 


i I 

S""2~ 


28 


M 


7 
16 


18 


K 


n 


18 


% 


3 

4 


14 


% 


3 1 
3~2 


14 


1 


1/6 


\\% 


m 


H 


U% 


iy 2 


If 


ny 2 


2 


2A 


n% 


2y 2 


211 


8 


3 


Q 9 
°S2 


8 


sy 2 


Q25 
°?2 


8 


4 


4ff2 


8 


4M 


4|| 


8 


5 


5f 


8 


6 


6H 


8 


7 


V. 


8 


8 


8tV 


8 


10 


10|| 


8 



0.12 THE SCIENTIFIC STEEL WORKER. 



Conclusion. 

In closing I wish to impress upon the minds of my 
many readers that I am not a retired steel worker. I 
cannot boast of having had forty years experience in 
working steel, for I am less than forty years old. I 
•commenced working steel when eighteen years of age 
and have been at it ever since (fifteen years). While 
writing this book I worked for The Youngstown Iron 
Sheet and Tube Company six days per week, and 
wrote in the evenings. I intend to work steel as long 
as health is spared to me, and will never get too old 
to learn. 

In conclusion I will repeat : Do not overheat steel 
for any purpose ; remember that the forging heat 
is too hot for annealing or hardening. Always heat 
steel slowly and evenly, but never under any circum- 
stances subject steel to heat any longer than is actu- 
ally necessary. As soon as it is properly heated 
remove it from the fire. Never hammer a flat tool on 
the edge during the finishing heats, and never ham- 
oner steel at a black heat. When hardening steel 
keep it in the bath until cooled thoroughly clear 
through. 



FEB 19 1904 



